Sulfur in peat-forming systems of the Okefenokee Swamp and Florida Everglades: origins of sulfur in coal

Six sulfur forms were investigated in profiles of freshwater- and marine-derived peat-forming systems of the Okefenokee Swamp, Georgia and Everglades Swamp, Florida. Total sulfur levels of 0.1–10% were found, thus indicating a major incorporation of sulfur in the very early stages of coal formation. The quantities of hydrogen sulfide and elemental sulfur observed appeared to be indicative of whether marine or freshwater conditions prevailed at the site of deposition. Carbon-bonded sulfur accounted for 70% of the total sulfur in the freshwater peat and 50% of the total sulfur in the marine peat. Over 15% of the total sulfur was in pyritic combination in the marine environment, while levels of pyrite in the freshwater peats were an order of magnitude lower. An ester-sulfate fraction represented 25% of the total sulfur in both freshwater and marine peats. The levels of sulfur forms in the peat profiles are compared to those observed in living plants and to various coals; levels of pyrite and organic sulfur in the peat are similar to those found by other investigators in freshwater-derived and marine-derived coals.     

Carbon and sulfur in the Swaziland sequence

Sedimentary and igneous rocks of the Swaziland Sequence of South Africa (>3,200 my. old) contain total carbon (0.09–8.28%), organic carbon (0.04–1.95%) and sulfur (9–53,000 ppm). Amounts of organic carbon are generally high in the lower part of the Sequence (based on two samples from the Theespruit Formation). Sulfur content varies widely with no obvious correlations or trends. These rocks may contain clues to the early carbon and sulfur cycles on earth.     

Deep-sea hydrocarbon seep gastropod Bathynerita naticoidea responds to cues from the habitat-providing mussel Bathymodiolus childressi

Bathynerita naticoidea (Gastropoda: Neritidae) is a numerically dominant heterotrophic gastropod found at hydrocarbon seep sites on the upper Louisiana slope of the Gulf of Mexico. Snails of this species are commonly associated with beds of the methanotrophic mussel Bathymodiolus childressi (Bivalvia: Mytilidae), and their population structure mirrors that of the mussels they are found among. Previous studies have shown that these snails feed on bacteria and decomposing periostracum on the B. childressi shell. We predicted that B. naticoidea might be attracted to cues specific to its preferred habitat, such as dissolved methane, mucus from conspecific snails, or metabolites produced by B. childressi mussels. To examine this, we used a flow‐through Y‐maze system to investigate the behavior of B. naticoidea exposed to these potential cues. We found that the nerite is not attracted to methane, but is strongly attracted to seawater conditioned with B. childressi. The attractant appears to be specific to this type of mussel, and is not a soluble cue produced by conspecific snails.     

Origin of the Blue Ridge escarpment along the passive margin of Eastern North America

The Blue Ridge escarpment is a rugged landform situated within the ancient Appalachian orogen. While similar in some respects to the great escarpments along other passive margins, which have evolved by erosion following rifting, its youthful topographic expression has inspired proposals of Cenozoic tectonic rejuvenation in eastern North America. To better understand the post‐orogenic and post‐rift geomorphic evolution of passive margins, we have examined the origin of this landform using low‐temperature thermochronometry and manipulation of topographic indices. Apatite (U–Th)/He and fission‐track analyses along transects across the escarpment reveal a younging trend towards the coast. This pattern is consistent with other great escarpments and fits with an interpretation of having evolved by prolonged erosion, without the requirement of tectonic rejuvenation. Measured ages are also comparable specifically to those measured along other great escarpments that are as much as 100 Myr younger. This suggests that erosional mechanisms that maintain rugged escarpments in the early post‐rift stages may remain active on ancient passive margins for prolonged periods. The precise erosional evolution of the escarpment is less clear, however, and several end‐member models can explain the data. Our preferred model, which fits with all data, involves a significant degree of erosional escarpment retreat in the Cenozoic. Although this suggests that early onset of topographic stability is not required of passive margin evolution, more data are required to better constrain the details of the escarpment's development.     

Volcanic ash clouds affecting Northern Europe: the long view

The volcanic ash or ‘tephra’ cloud resulting from the relatively small (volume and VEI) eruption of the Icelandic volcano Eyjafjallajökull in 2010 caused major air travel disruption, at substantial global economic cost. On several occasions in the past few centuries, Icelandic eruptions have created ash and/or sulphur dioxide clouds which were detected over Europe (e.g. Hekla in 1947, Askja in 1875, and Laki in 1783). However, these historical observations do not represent a complete record of events serious enough to disrupt aviation in Europe. The only feasible evidence for this is within the geological tephra record. Ash layers are preserved in bogs and lakes where tephra deposited from the atmosphere is incorporated in the peat/mud. In this article we: 1, introduce the analysis of the Northern European sedimentary tephra record; 2, discuss our findings and modelling results; 3, highlight how these were misinterpreted by the popular media; and 4, use this experience to outline several existing problems with current tephra studies and suggest agendas for future research.     

A signature of the donor star in the extra-galactic X-ray binary LMC X−2

Two nights of phase-resolved medium-resolution Very Large Telescope spectroscopy of the extra-galactic low-mass X-ray binary LMC X−2 have revealed a 0.32 ± 0.02 d spectroscopic period in the radial velocity curve of the He  ii λ4686 emission line that we interpret as the orbital period. However, similar to previous findings, this radial velocity curve shows a longer term variation that is most likely due to the presence of a precessing accretion disc in LMC X−2. This is strengthened by He  ii λ4686 Doppler maps that show a bright spot that is moving from night to night. Furthermore, we detect narrow emission lines in the Bowen region of LMC X−2, with a velocity of   K _em= 351 ± 28 km s⁻¹  , that we tentatively interpret as coming from the irradiated side of the donor star. Since K _em must be smaller than K ₂, this leads to the first upper limit on the mass function of LMC X−2 of   f ( M ₁) ≥ 0.86  M_⊙  (95 per cent confidence), and the first constraints on its system parameters.     

Alteration of five organic compounds by glow discharge plasma and UV light under simulated Mars conditions

The Viking missions to Mars failed to detect any organic material in regolith samples. Since then, several removal mechanisms of organic material have been proposed. Two of these proposed methods are removal due to exposure to plasmas created in dust devils and exposure to UV irradiation. The experiments presented here were performed to identify similarities between the two potential removal mechanisms and to identify any compounds produced from these mechanisms that would have been difficult for the Viking instruments to detect. Five organic compounds, phenanthrene, octadecane, octadecanoic acid, decanophenone and benzoic acid, were exposed to a glow discharge plasma created in simulated martian atmospheres as might be present in dust devils, and to UV irradiation similar to that found at the surface of Mars. Glow discharge exposure was carried out in a chamber with 6.9 mbar pressure of a Mars like gas composed mostly of carbon dioxide. The plasma was characterized using emission spectroscopy and found to contain cations and excited neutral species including carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen. UV irradiation experiments were performed in a Mars chamber which simulates the temperature, pressure, atmospheric composition, and UV fluence rates of equatorial Mars. The non-volatile residues left after each exposure were characterized by mass loss, infrared spectroscopy and high resolution mass spectrometry. Oxidized, higher molecular weight versions of the parent compounds containing carbonyl, hydroxyl and alkenyl functional groups were identified. The presence of these oxidized compounds suggests that searches for organic material in soils on Mars use instrumentation suitable for detection of compounds which contain the above functional groups. Discussions of possible reaction mechanisms are given.