Is geographical proximity necessary in the innovation networks in the era of global economy?

In the analysis of geographical spillovers, a commonly accepted hypothesis is that the different actors of innovation need to be physically closed to one another because the transfer of tacit knowledge implies frequent face-to-face relations. This hypothesis is put under closer examination in this paper. The first section analyses the need for economic agents to be closely located to develop research and innovative activities, starting with the analysis of their need for co-ordination and using some case studies. Based on the example of three French regions, the second section examines the importance given by the local development policies to geographical proximity in order to support the rapid development of local networks favouring innovation. In both sections, nonlocal relations appear as a key factor to develop innovation. As a conclusion, nonlocal relations should be encouraged by local development policies in the same way as local relations.     

Enhanced identification of a hydrologic model using streamflow and satellite water storage data: A multicriteria sensitivity analysis and optimization approach

Hydrologic model development and calibration have continued in most cases to focus only on accurately reproducing streamflows. However, complex models, for example, the so‐called physically based models, possess large degrees of freedom that, if not constrained properly, may lead to poor model performance when used for prediction. We argue that constraining a model to represent streamflow, which is an integrated resultant of many factors across the watershed, is necessary but by no means sufficient to develop a high‐fidelity model. To address this problem, we develop a framework to utilize the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment's (GRACE) total water storage anomaly data as a supplement to streamflows for model calibration, in a multiobjective setting. The VARS method (Variogram Analysis of Response Surfaces) for global sensitivity analysis is used to understand the model behaviour with respect to streamflow and GRACE data, and the BORG multiobjective optimization method is applied for model calibration. Two subbasins of the Saskatchewan River Basin in Western Canada are used as a case study. Results show that the developed framework is superior to the conventional approach of calibration only to streamflows, even when multiple streamflow‐based error functions are simultaneously minimized. It is shown that a range of (possibly false) system trajectories in state variable space can lead to similar (acceptable) model responses. This observation has significant implications for land‐surface and hydrologic model development and, if not addressed properly, may undermine the credibility of the model in prediction. The framework effectively constrains the model behaviour (by constraining posterior parameter space) and results in more credible representation of hydrology across the watershed.     

Estimating River Conductance from Prior Information to Improve Surface‐Subsurface Model Calibration

Most groundwater models simulate stream‐aquifer interactions with a head‐dependent flux boundary condition based on a river conductance (CRIV). CRIV is usually calibrated with other parameters by history matching. However, the inverse problem of groundwater models is often ill‐posed and individual model parameters are likely to be poorly constrained. Ill‐posedness can be addressed by Tikhonov regularization with prior knowledge on parameter values. The difficulty with a lumped parameter like CRIV, which cannot be measured in the field, is to find suitable initial and regularization values. Several formulations have been proposed for the estimation of CRIV from physical parameters. However, these methods are either too simple to provide a reliable estimate of CRIV, or too complex to be easily implemented by groundwater modelers. This paper addresses the issue with a flexible and operational tool based on a 2D numerical model in a local vertical cross section, where the river conductance is computed from selected geometric and hydrodynamic parameters. Contrary to other approaches, the grid size of the regional model and the anisotropy of the aquifer hydraulic conductivity are also taken into account. A global sensitivity analysis indicates the strong sensitivity of CRIV to these parameters. This enhancement for the prior estimation of CRIV is a step forward for the calibration and uncertainty analysis of surface‐subsurface models. It is especially useful for modeling objectives that require CRIV to be well known such as conjunctive surface water‐groundwater use.     

The concept of travelling bedload and its consequences for bedload computation in mountain streams

In bedload transport modelling, it is usually presumed that transported material is fed by the bed itself. This may not be true in some mountain streams where the bed can be very coarse and immobile for the majority of common floods, whereas a finer material, supplied by bed‐external sources, is efficiently transported during floods, with marginal morphological activities. This transport mode was introduced in an earlier paper as ‘travelling bedload’. It could be considered an extension of the washload concept of suspension, applied to bedload transport in high‐energy, heavily armoured streams. Since this fine material is poorly represented in the bed surface, standard surface‐based approaches are likely to strongly underestimate the true transport in such streams. This paper proposes a simple method to account for travelling bedload in bedload transport estimations. The method is tested on published datasets and on a typical Alpine stream, the Roize (Voreppe, France). The results, particularly on active streams that experience greater transport than expected from the grain sizes of their bed material, reinforce the necessity of accounting for the ‘travelling bedload concept’ in bedload computation. The method relevance is discussed regarding varying flood magnitudes, geomorphic responses and eventual anthropic origin of the ‘travelling bedload’ phenomena. To conclude, this paper considers how to compute bedload transport for a wide range of situations, ranging from sediment‐starved cases to the general mobile bed alluvial case, including the intermediate situation of external source supply on armoured bed. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Mercury resolved spectroscopy from NTT

Mercury has been observed in June 2006 with the SofI instrument at NTT. Resolved spectroscopy was performed in the range. The observations were acquired close to a favorable quadrature with maximum elongation, and span mostly the southern hemisphere in the 235–315°E longitude area.In contrast to recent observations from IRTF, the present study does not indicate any pyroxene absorption in the near-infrared range, neither in the region nor at . Detailed spectral analysis allows to derive an upper limit of 1.5% type-A pyroxene (hedenbergite) or 1.1% enstatite (assuming minimum lunar iron content) in the regions observed, at the 700 km scale. Assuming lunar-like maturity effects on band depth, this corresponds to an upper limit of 0.15 and 0.6 wt.% FeO content in silicates, an order of magnitude less than previous estimates.     

Island shadow effects and the wave climate of the Western Tuamotu Archipelago (French Polynesia) inferred from altimetry and numerical model data

To implement a numerical model of atoll lagoon circulation, we characterized first the significant wave height (Hs) regime of the Western Tuamotu Archipelago and the local attenuation due to the protection offered by large atolls in the south Tuamotu. Altimetry satellite data and a WAVEWATCH III two-way nested wave model at 5km resolution from 2000 to 2010 were used. Correlation between altimetry and model was high (0.88) over the period. According to the wave model, the archipelago inner seas experienced attenuated Hs year-long with a yearly average Hs around 1.3m vs a minimum of 1.6m elsewhere. The island shadow effect is especially significant in the austral winter. In contrast with southern atolls, Western Tuamotu experienced only few days per year of Hs larger than 2.5m generated by very high Hs southern swell, transient western local storms, strong easterly winds, and during the passage of distant hurricanes.     

Testing bedload transport equations with consideration of time scales

Bedload transport is known to be a highly fluctuating temporal phenomenon, even under constant (mean) flow conditions, as a consequence of stochasticity, bedform migration, grain sorting, hysteresis, or sediment supply limitation. Because bedload transport formulas usually refer to a single mean transport value for a given flow condition, one can expect that prediction accuracy (when compared to measurements) will depend on the amplitude and duration of fluctuations, which in turn depend on the time scale used for observations. This paper aims to identify how the time scale considered can affect bedload prediction. This was done by testing 16 common bedload transport formulas with four data sets corresponding to different measurement period durations: (i) highly fluctuating (quasi‐)instantaneous field measurements; (ii) volumes accumulated at the event scale on two small alpine gravel‐bed rivers, potentially affected by seasonal fluctuations; (iii) volumes accumulated at the interannual scale in a meandering gravel bed river, thought to be weakly subject to fluctuations; (iv) time‐integrated flume measurements with nearly uniform sediments. The tests confirmed that the longer the measurement period, the better the precision of the formula's prediction interval. They also demonstrate several consequential limitations. Most threshold formulas are no longer valid when the flow condition is below two times the threshold condition for the largest elements' motion on the bed surface (considering D₈₄). In such conditions, equations either predict zero transport, or largely overestimate the real transport, especially when D₈₄ is high. There is a need for new sediment data collected with highly reliable techniques such as recording slot bedload samplers to further investigate this topic. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Space- and ground-based measurements of sulphur dioxide emissions from Turrialba Volcano (Costa Rica)

Remotely sensed measurements of sulphur dioxide (SO₂) emitted by Turrialba Volcano (Costa Rica) are reported for the period September 2009–January 2011. These measurements were obtained using images from Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflexion radiometer, Ozone Monitoring Instrument and a ground-based UV camera. These three very different instruments provide flux measurements in good agreement with each other, which demonstrate that they can be integrated for monitoring SO₂ fluxes. Fluxes from Turrialba increased fourfold in January 2010, following a phreatic explosion that formed a degassing vent in the W crater of Turrialba. Since then, the SO₂ flux has remained high (30–50?kg/s) but seems to be showing a slowly decreasing trend. We interpret this evolution as the start of open vent degassing from a recently intruded magma body. The opening of the degassing vent decreased the confining pressure of the magma body and allowed the gases to bypass the hydrothermal system.