Forensic isotope analysis to refine a hydrologic conceptual model

Water resources in the arid southwestern United States are frequently the subject of conflict from competing private and public interests. Legal remedies may remove impasses, but the technical analysis of the problem often determines the future success of legal solutions. In Owens Valley, California, the source of water for the Los Angeles Aqueduct (LAA) is flow diverted from the Owens River and its tributaries and ground water from valley aquifers. Future management of ground water delivered to the LAA needs technical support regarding quantity available, interconnection of shallow and confined aquifers, impact on local springs, and rate of recharge. Ground water flow models and ground water composition are tools already in use, but these have large uncertainty for local interpretations. This study conducted targeted sampling of springs and wells to evaluate the hydrologic system to corroborate conceptual and numerical models. The effort included measurement of intrinsic isotopic composition at key locations in the aquifers. The stable isotopic data of boron (delta(11)B), sulfur (delta(34)S), oxygen (delta(18)O), hydrogen (delta D), and tritium ((3)H) supported by basic chemical data provided rules for characterizing the upper and the lower aquifer system, confirmed the interpretation of ground water flow near faults and flow barriers, and detected hydraulic connections between the LAA and the perennial springs at key locations along the unlined reach of the LAA. This study exemplifies the use of forensic isotopic approaches as independent checks on the consistency of interpretations of conceptual models of a ground water system and the numerical hydrologic simulations.     

Evaluation of stony coral indicators for coral reef management

Colonies of reef-building stony corals at 57 stations around St. Croix, US Virgin Islands were characterized by species, size and percentage of living tissue. Taxonomic, biological and physical indicators of coral condition were derived from these measurements and assessed for their response to gradients of human disturbance—a requirement for indicators used in regulatory assessments under authority of the Clean Water Act. At the most intensely disturbed location, five of eight primary indicators were highly correlated with distance from the source of disturbance: Coral taxa richness, average colony size, the coefficient of variation of colony size, total topographic coral surface area, and live coral surface area. An additional set of exploratory indicators related to rarity, reproductive and spawning mode and taxonomic identity were also screened. The primary indicators demonstrated sufficient precision to detect levels of change that would be applicable in a regional-scale regulatory program.     

Diel patterns in coastal‐stream nitrate concentrations linked to evapotranspiration in the riparian zone of a low‐relief,agricultural catchment

Evapotranspiration (ET) can cause diel fluctuations in the elevation of the water table and the stage in adjacent streams. The diel fluctuations of water levels change head gradients throughout the day, causing specific discharge through near‐stream sediment to fluctuate at the same time scale. In a previous study, we showed that specific discharge controls the residence time of groundwater in streambed sediment that, in turn, exerted the primary control on removal from groundwater passing through the streambed. In this study, we examine the magnitude of diel specific discharge patterns through the streambed driven by ET in the riparian zone with a transient numerical saturated–unsaturated groundwater flow model. On the basis of a first‐order kinetic model for removal, we predicted diel fluctuations in stream concentrations. Model results indicated that ET drove a diel pattern in specific discharge through the streambed and riparian zone (the removal zones). Because specific discharge is inversely proportional to groundwater travel time through the removal zones and travel time determines the extent of removal, diel changes in ET can result in a diel pattern in concentration in the stream. The model predictions generally matched observations made during summertime base‐flow conditions in a small coastal plain stream in Virginia. A more complicated pattern was observed following a seasonal drawdown period, where source components to the stream changed during the receding limb of the hydrograph and resulted in diel fluctuations being superimposed over a multi‐day trend in concentrations. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Experimental implementation and verification of multi‐degrees‐of‐freedom effective force testing

This paper presents an experimental implementation and verification of multi‐degrees‐of‐freedom effective force testing (MDOF‐EFT). An experimental setup that consists of a two‐degrees‐of‐freedom structural system and two hydraulic actuators at the Johns Hopkins University was utilized in this study. First, experimental system identification was performed to develop compatible analytical models for the multi‐input and multi‐output systems. Dynamics of the control plant, that is, the valve‐to‐force relations, were modeled with a rational polynomial transfer function matrix and delay components. By using the analytical model, a centralized decoupling loop‐shaping force feedback controller was designed such that the forces are uncoupled and the loop transfer functions have desirable dynamic characteristics in the frequency domain. Then, a series of harmonic force and earthquake simulation tests were performed to assess capabilities and limitations of MDOF‐EFT. Experimental results showed that the dynamic forces in the two actuators were accurately controlled to provide tracking while the system was stable and robust for the entire period of the experiment. Furthermore, earthquake simulation tests with increased levels of the reference forces demonstrated the feasibility of MDOF‐EFT with highly nonlinear test structures. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Seasonal,tidal, and geomorphic controls on sediment export to Amazon River tidal floodplains

Mainstem–floodplain material exchange in the tidal freshwater reach of major rivers may lead to significant sequestration of riverine sediment, but this zone remains understudied compared to adjacent fluvial and marine environments. This knowledge gap prompts investigation of floodplain-incising tidal channels found along the banks of tidal rivers and their role in facilitating water and suspended-sediment fluxes between mainstem and floodplain. To evaluate this role, and how it evolves along the tidal river and with time, we measured water level, flow velocity, temperature, and suspended-sediment concentration (SSC) in four tidal channels along the tidal Amazon River, Brazil. Eleven deployments were made during low, rising, high, and falling seasonal Amazon discharge. Generally, channels export high-SSC water from the mainstem to the tidal floodplain on flood tides and transfer low-SSC water back to the mainstem on ebbs. Along the length of the tidal river, the interaction between tidal and seasonal water-level variations and channel–floodplain morphology is a primary control on tidal-channel sediment dynamics. Close to the river mouth, where tides are large, this interaction produces transient flow features and current-induced sediment resuspension, but the importance of these processes decreases with distance upstream. Although the magnitude of the exchange of water and sediment between mainstem and floodplain via tidal channels is a small percentage of the total mainstem discharge in this large tidal-river system, tidal channels are important conduits for material flux between these two environments. This flux is critical to resisting floodplain submergence during times of rising sea level. © 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Automated Time Series Measurement of Microbial Concentrations in Groundwater-Derived Water Supplies

Fecal contamination by human and animal pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, and protozoa, is a potential human health hazard, especially with regards to drinking water. Pathogen occurrence in groundwater varies considerably in space and time, which can be difficult to characterize as sampling typically requires hundreds of liters of water to be passed through a filter. Here we describe the design and deployment of an automated sampler suited for hydrogeologically and chemically dynamic groundwater systems. Our design focused on a compact form to facilitate transport and quick deployment to municipal and domestic water supplies. We deployed a sampler to characterize water quality from a household well tapping a shallow fractured dolomite aquifer in northeast Wisconsin. The sampler was deployed from January to April 2017, and monitored temperature, nitrate, chloride, specific conductance, and fluorescent dissolved organic matter on a minute time step; water was directed to sequential microbial filters during three recharge periods that ranged from 5 to 20 days. Results from the automated sampler demonstrate the dynamic nature of the household water quality, especially with regard to microbial targets, which were shown to vary 1 to 2 orders of magnitude during a single sampling event. We believe assessments of pathogen occurrence and concentration, and related assessments of drinking well vulnerability, would be improved by the time-integrated characterization provided by this sampler.     

UAS‐based remote sensing of fluvial change following an extreme flood event

The effects of large floods on river morphology are variable and poorly understood. In this study, we apply multi‐temporal datasets collected with small unmanned aircraft systems (UASs) to analyze three‐dimensional morphodynamic changes associated with an extreme flood event that occurred from 19 to 23 June 2013 on the Elbow River, Alberta. We documented reach‐scale spatial patterns of erosion and deposition using high‐resolution (4–5 cm/pixel) orthoimagery and digital elevation models (DEMs) produced from photogrammetry. Significant bank erosion and channel widening occurred, with an average elevation change of ?0.24 m. The channel pattern was reorganized and overall elevation variation increased as the channel adjusted to full mobilization of most of the bed surface sediments. To test the extent to which geomorphic changes can be predicted from initial conditions, we compared shear stresses from a two‐dimensional hydrodynamic model of peak discharge to critical shear stresses for bed surface sediment sizes. We found no relation between modeled normalized shear stresses and patterns of scour and fill, confirming the complex nature of sediment mobilization and flux in high‐magnitude events. However, comparing modeled peak flows through the pre‐ and post‐flood topography showed that the flood resulted in an adjustment that contributes to overall stability, with lower percentages of bed area below thresholds for full mobility in the post‐flood geomorphic configuration. Overall, this work highlights the potential of UAS‐based remote sensing for measuring three‐dimensional changes in fluvial settings and provides a detailed analysis of potential relationships between flood forces and geomorphic change. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Distributions of dissolved vitamin B12 and Co in coastal and open-ocean environments

Distributions of dissolved vitamin B₁₂ and total dissolved Co were measured to gain an understanding of the cycling of these interdependent micronutrients in six marine settings including; an upwelling location, a semi-enclosed bay, two urban coastal systems, and two open ocean locations. Along the coast of Baja California, Mexico, concentrations of B₁₂ and dissolved Co varied from 0.2 to 11 pM and 180 to 990 pM, respectively. At a nearby upwelling station, vitamin B₁₂ and Co concentrations ranged from 0.3 to 7.0 pM and 22 to 145 pM, and concentrations did not correlate with upwelling intensity. Concentrations of B₁₂ were highest within Todos Santos Bay, a semi-enclosed bay off the coast of Baja California, Mexico, during a dinoflagellate bloom, ranging from 2 to 61 pM, while Co concentrations varied between 61 and 194 pM. In the anthropogenically impacted Long Island Sound, NY, U.S.A., B₁₂ levels were between 0.1 and 23 pM and Co concentrations varied from 60 to 1900 pM. However, anthropogenic inputs were not evident in B₁₂ levels in the San Pedro Basin, located outside Los Angeles, Ca, U.S.A., where concentrations of B₁₂ were 0.2–1.8 pM, approximating observed open ocean B₁₂ concentrations. In the Southern Ocean and North Atlantic Ocean, B₁₂ levels were 0.4–4 pM and 0.2–2 pM, respectively. Total Co concentrations in the Southern Ocean and North Atlantic tended to be low; measuring 26–59 pM and 15–80 pM, respectively. These low Co concentrations may limit B₁₂ synthesis and its availability to B₁₂-requiring phytoplankton because the total dissolved Co pool is not necessarily entirely bioavailable.     

Micro-bubble resistance reduction on a model SES catamaran

The concept of micro-bubble ejection is emerging as an attractive method for viscous drag reduction for high speed craft. Most of the drag reduction literature presents results for micro-bubble ejection above/below horizontal surfaces. Nevertheless, modern high-speed hull forms are slender with vertical surfaces. This paper presents results of model tests with micro-bubble ejection to the vertical sides of a high speed model with a non-wetting coating. The coating yielded drag reduction of 4–6% and micro-bubbles with coating reduced overall drag by 4–11%. The local coefficient of friction with micro-bubbles is analyzed and found comparable to vertical flat plate results of [Madavan et al., 1984].     

Atmospheric entry heating of micrometeorites at Earth and Mars: Implications for the survival of organics

The atmospheric entry heating of micrometeorites (MMs) can significantly alter their pre‐existing mineralogy, texture, and organic material. The degree of heating depends predominantly on the gravity and atmospheric density of the planet on which they fall. For particles falling on Earth, the alteration can be significant, leading to the destruction of much of the pre‐entry organics; however, the weaker gravity and thinner atmosphere of Mars enhance the survival of MMs and increase the fraction of particles that preserve organic material. This paper investigates the entry heating of MMs on the Earth and Mars in order to examine the MM population on each planet and give insights into the survival of extraterrestrial organic material. The results show that particles reaching the surface of Mars experience a lower peak temperature compared to Earth and, therefore, experience less evaporative mass loss. Of the particles which reach the surface, 68.2% remain unmelted on Mars compared to only 22.8% on Earth. Due to evaporative mass loss, unmelted particles that reach the surface of Earth are restricted to sizes <70 μm whereas particles >475 μm survive unmelted on Mars. Approximately 10% of particles experience temperatures below ~800 K, that is, the sublimation temperature of refractory organics found in MMs. On Earth, this fraction is significantly lower with less than 1% expected to remain below this temperature. Lower peak temperatures coupled with the larger sizes of particles surviving without significant heating on Mars suggest a much higher fraction of organic material surviving to the Martian surface.