Initialization and data assimilation experiments with a primitive equation model

The process of combining models of the ocean circulation with large data sets is known in meteorology as model initialization and data assimilation. This process is new to oceanographers, who only now are on the verge of having available world-wide synoptic maps of dynamic variables. In this paper we carry out a series of idealized initialization/assimilation experiments with a primitive equation (PE) model, which constitute a first step in developing a realistic process model and data assimilation techniques for the Gulf Stream system. The PE model is used in a spin-down mode and initialized with an analytic jet profile with geostrophically balanced fields.Two major questions are addressed in the present study. The first concerns the initialization process of a PE model during which internal/inertial gravity wave noise is produced. We ask: are the initialization shocks equally crucial for ocean models as they have been for their atmospheric counterparts? The results of an extensive series of balanced versus unbalanced initializations indicate that, for a PE model with a rigid lid, a brutally unbalanced initialization is required to produce strong internal gravity wave shocks. A geostrophically balanced initialization is sufficient to ensure smooth jet evolutions, with no apparent gravity waves, over long time durations in the spin-down mode. No sophisticated initialization procedures seem, therefore, to be required.The second question addressed is: which component of the flow is the most important in data assimilation to drive the model response towards a baseline reference ocean? We specifically compare the knowledge of the depth-integrated flow only, corresponding to measurements of the total transport, with the knowledge of the density field only, or equivalently the velocity shear. The knowledge of the interior density field is much more effective in decreasing the root-mean-square (r.m.s.) errors relative to the reference ocean. If the baroclinic structure is known, coarse horizontal resolutions of data insertion can be reached before significantly worsening the model estimates. If only the depth-averaged flow is known, a decrease in the horizontal resolution of data assimilation has an immediate effect: the r.m.s. errors sharply increase and the assimilation run diverges from the reference ocean. In the assimilation of the barotropic flow alone, even with dense resolution, the errors in the deep layers always show an increasing trend. The relative effectiveness of baroclinic versus barotropic data insertion can be rationalized in the context of geostrophic adjustment theory.     

Deglaciation and postglacial timberline in the San Juan Mountains,Colorado

Lake Emma, which no longer exists because of a mining accident, was a tarn in a south-facing cirque near the headwaters of the Animas River in the San Juan Mountains of southwestern Colorado. During the Pinedale glaciation, this area was covered by a large transection glacier centered over the Lake Emma region. Three radiocarbon dates on basal organic sediment from Lake Emma indicate that by ca. 15,000 yr B.P. this glacier, one of the largest in the southern Rocky Mountains, no longer existed. Twenty-two radiocarbon dates on Picea and Abies krummholz fragments in the Lake Emma deposits indicate that from ca. 9600 to 7800 yr B.P., from 6700 to 5600 yr B.P., and at 3100 yr B.P. the krummholz limit was at least 70 m higher than present. These data, in conjunction with Picea:Pinus pollen ratios from both the Lake Emma site and the Hurricane Basin site of J. T. Andrews, P. E. Carrara, F. B. King, and R. Struckenrath (1975, Quaternary Research 5, 173–197) suggest than from ca. 9600 to 3000 yr B.P. timberline in the San Juan Mountains was higher than present. Cooling apparently began ca. 3000 yr B.P. as indicated by decreases in both the percentage of Picea pollen and Picea:Pinus pollen ratios at the Hurricane Basin site (Andrews et al., 1975). Cooling is also suggested by the lack of Picea or Abies fragments younger than 3000 yr B.P. at either the Lake Emma or the Hurricane Basin site.     

Autosuspension and the energetics of two-phase flows: Reply to comments on ‘experimental test of autosuspension’ by J. B. Southard and M. E. Mackintosh

The experimental programme of Southard and Mackintosh (1981) provides a definitive refutation of the autosuspension criterion as it was originally defined. A simple energy budget for dilute two-phase flow is derived from continuum theory of mixtures; it shows that Bagnold's criterion is based on an arbitrary comparison of two elements of the complete two-phase system. It is recommended that facile, ab hoc criteria for the behaviour of such complex flows be avoided in favour of analyses based on fundamental equations of motion.     

Roughness control on hydraulic conductivity in fractured rocks

The influence of joint roughness on the typologies of fluid flow inside fractures is well known and, thanks to experiences in the field of hydraulics, it has been studied from both a physical and mathematical point of view. Nevertheless, the formulations adopted by traditional hydraulic models are hardly applicable in the geological field, because of the difficulty encountered in the roughness parameter estimation. Normally this parameter can be estimated using the joint roughness coefficient (JRC), which considers both the asperity height and its regularity and directional trend. The main advantage in using the JRC arises from the fact that it can easily be obtained from geological-technical surveys and from comparison with the standard Barton profiles. Some relationships have been built up that allow for the estimation of the hydraulic conductivity tensor (an essential parameter for understanding water flow in fractured rock masses), not only as a function of traditional parameters like aperture, spacing, dip and dip direction, etc., but also of joint roughness, precisely expressed in terms of the roughness coefficient. These relationships have been studied initially from a theoretical point of view and then practically, through laboratory investigations.

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Resumen  Se conoce muy bien la influencia de la rugosidad de las grietas en las tipologías del flujo de fluidos a lo interior de las fracturas y gracias a las experiencias en el campo de hidráulica ha sido posible estudiarla desde puntos de vista matemáticos y físicos. Sin embargo, las formulaciones adoptadas por los modelos hidráulicos tradicionales tienen poca aplicabilidad en el campo geológico debido a la dificultad relacionada con la estimación del parámetro de rugosidad. Normalmente este parámetro puede estimarse usando el coeficiente de rugosidad de grieta (JRC) el cual considera tanto la altura de la aspereza como su regularidad y tendencia direccional. La principal ventaja de utilizar el JRC se deriva del hecho que puede obtenerse fácilmente de levantamientos técnico-geológicos y de la comparación con los perfiles Standard Barton. Se han construido algunas relaciones que permiten la estimación del tensor de conductividad hidráulica (un parámetro esencial para el entendimiento del flujo de agua en masas de roca fracturadas), no solo en función de parámetros tradicionales como apertura, espaciado, buzamiento y dirección de buzamiento, etc., sino también en función de la rugosidad de la grieta estimada con precisión en términos del coeficiente de rugosidad. Estas relaciones se han estudiado inicialmente desde un punto de vista teórico y luego de modo práctico a través de investigaciones de laboratorio.

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Résumé  L’influence de la rugosité des joints sur les types d’écoulement de fluide dans les fractures est bien connue et a été étudiée aussi bien du point de vue physique que mathématique grace à des expériences menées dans le domaine de l’hydraulique. Cependant les formulations adoptées dans les modèles hydrauliques traditionnels sont difficilement applicables dans le domaine de la géologie à cause de la difficulté rencontrée pour estimer la rugosité. Ce paramètre peut normalement être apprécié grace au coefficient de rugosité du joint (JRC), lequel prend en compte à la fois la hauteur de l’aspérité ainsi que sa régularité et sa direction. Le principal avantage dans l’utilisation du JRC réside dans le fait qu’il peut facilement être obtenu à partir d’études techniques-géologiques et par comparaison avec la classification de Barton. Des relations qui permettent une estimation du tenseur de conductivité hydraulique (un paramètre essentiel pour comprendre l’écoulement de l’eau dans les masses rocheuses fracturées) ont été élaborées, pas seulement en fonction de paramètres traditionnels tels que l’ouverture, l’espacement, l’inclinaison et la direction d’inclinaison, etc , mais aussi en prenant en compte la rugosité des joints à travers le coefficient de rugosité. Ces relations ont initialement été étudiées d’un point de vue théorique puis expérimentalement à travers des recherches en laboratoire.

     

Geometric constraints on composition of sediment derived from erosional landscapes

Although unroofing sequences are well known in the stratigraphic record, there is no general theory for estimating relevant basic quantities such as the time history of sediment production from a particular unit or the degree of mixing between successive units. Here we investigate the production of sediment from layered source rocks that are milled off by steady-state erosional topography. The shape of the sediment-production function for milling off a thin horizontal layer is given by the derivative of the hypsometric function, in the form of area contained within contours as a function of contour altitude. The time-scale for the production function, the ‘topographic mixing time’, is set by the topographic relief divided by the uplift rate. The production function for a sharp transition from one unit to another is given directly by the hypsometric function. The effects of stratal dip parallel to the mean slope of the erosional topography and finite layer thickness can be accounted for to a first approximation by simple geometric corrections to the mixing time. Finite layer thickness also has the effect of smoothing the production function although most natural hypsometric functions are smooth enough that this effect is relatively weak. The quality of an unroofing sequence can be measured in terms of the ‘sharpness’ of separation of successive peaks in sediment production produced by milling off a sequence of geometrically similar layers. This peak sharpness can be parameterized by a ratio of the interval between successive peaks in sediment production to topographic mixing time. By this measure, the quality of unroofing sequences is controlled by two parameters: the ratio of layer thickness to topographic relief, and the dip angle. The dip angle in concert with topographic mixing exerts a strong control on the degree of signal segregation; in particular, production of cleanly segregated signals for dip angles greater than about 15° requires very high ratios of layer thickness to relief. Hence identification of distinct unroofing sequences may place significant and useful constraints on the attitude and/or thickness of units in the eroding stratigraphy.     

Volcanology and petrology of Nisyros Island (Dodecanese,Greece)

Nisyros is a totally volcanic island located at the eastern limit of the quaternary calc-alkaline island arc system of the South Aegean Sea. Its age is rather young since K/Ar dating has given an age of 0.2 m.y. B.P. for one of the oldest outcropping products of this volcano. The volcanological evolution of Nisyros has tentatively been reconstructed as follows:

1. after a period (from 3.0? to 0.2 m.y. B.P.) of submarine activity, evidenced by the presence of pillow-lavas and hyaloclastites, the volcano grew above sea level;
2. effusive and explosive subaerial activity from different vents built up a complex stratovolcano, probably around 0.2 m.y. B. P.;
3. at the end of an intense explosive activity (between 0.2 m.y. B.P. and Present) the top of the volcano collapsed forming a caldera which is still perfectly preserved. A post-caldera activity with eruptions of huge and viscous domes and lava flows of uniform composition, both inside and outside the caldera, concluded this stage of the volcano evolution;
4. in historical times, spectacular phreatic explosion craters formed on the caldera floor;
5. presently, a large area of the caldera floor is affected by a considerable hydrothermal activity. The hypothesis is formed that Nisyros volcano is not yet extinct.

Four small volcanic islets — Yali, Stronjili, Pakia and Perigusa — located a few miles on the North and West of Nisyros, although volcanologically independent of one another, are composed of products which are attributable, from the petrologic point of view, to the Nisyros magma. The volcanic rocks of Nisyros and of its neighbouring minor islands as well as the volcanics of the coeval volcanoes of the South Aegean Sea arc (Aegina, Milos, Santorini, etc.) belong to a typical orogenic calc-alkaline series (from basic andesites through andesites-dacites-rhyodacites to strongly silicic rhyolites) with normal K₂O contents. The potassium contents of these rocks are compatible with the depth of 150 km (as inferred from geophysical data) for the inclined seismic zone underneath the active volcanic arc. The existence of a top-caldera as well as the occurrence of a huge amount of xenoliths (hornblende-rich cumulates and contact-metamorphic calcareous rock derivatives) suggest the presence of a magma chamber at a relatively shallow depth beneath the volcano. The rhyolitic obsidians of Yali can be considered as residual liquids from the Nisyros rhyodacites, thus representing the end-members of a fractionation process. Volcanological and petrological arguments are in favour of fractional crystallization as the most probable genetic process for the calc-alkaline differentiation series of Nisyros and of its neighbouring minor islands. However, the lack of any rock with a high alumina basalt composition makes it difficult to define exactly the nature of the parent magma. According to recent geophysical data, continental collision is already in progress at the Hellenic trench. Therefore, Nisyros and the other active volcanoes of the South Aegean Sea arc are approaching the senile stage. What would follow could be a transition to shoshonitic magmatism as a consequence of the deepening of the lithospheric slab under the Aegean microplate. The limited extension and the relatively short-lived calc-alkaline activity of the South Aegean Sea arc could be related to the particular geodynamic pattern of the Mediterranean area which is characterized by a microplates mosaic between the two converging African and Eurasian major plates.     

Interpretation of gravity and magnetic anomalies near Naples,Italy, using computer techniques

Some aspects of the analytical procedure for an automatic fitting of gravity and magnetic anomalies are discussed. An example of application relative to the Campania volcanic district near Naples, Italy, is reported. Gravity anomalies in that area mainly reflect the depth to the carbonate basement rocks. A small gravity high over Vesuvius may indicate buried volcanic layers. Magnetic anomalies near L. Patria and Castel Volturno are interpreted to be caused by buried intrusive rocks of higher susceptibility. Computer models of subsurface rock units with appropriate densities and susceptibilities have been generated to match the observed anomalies.     

Depth profiles of bacterioplankton assemblages and their activities in the Ross Sea

The identification of bacterial community structure has led, since the beginning of the 1990s, to the idea that bacterioplankton populations are stratified in the water column and that diverse lineages with mostly unknown phenotypes dominate marine microbial communities. The diversity of depth-related assemblages is also reflected in their patterns of activities, as bacteria affiliated to different groups can express different activities in a given ecosystem. We analysed bacterial assemblages (DGGE fingerprinting) and their activities (prokaryotic carbon production, protease, phosphatase, chitinase, beta-glucosidase and lipase activities) in two areas in the Ross Sea, differing mainly in their productivity regime: two stations are located in the Terra Nova Bay polynya area (highly productive during summer) and two close to Cape Adare (low phytoplankton biomass and activity). At every station a pronounced stratification of bacterial assemblages was identified, highlighting epipelagic communities differing substantially from the mesopelagic and the bathypelagic communities. Multivariate analysis suggested that pressure and indirectly light-affected variables (i.e. oxygen and fluorescence) had a great effect on the bacterial communities outcompeting the possible influences of temperature and dissolved organic carbon concentration. Generally activities decreased with depth even though a signal of the Circumpolar Deep Water (CDW) at one of the northern stations corresponded to an increase in some of the degradative activities, generating some ‘hot spots’ in the profile. We also found that similar assemblages express similar metabolic requirements reflected in analogous patterns of activity (similar degradative potential and leucine uptake rate). Furthermore, the presence of eukaryotic chloroplasts’ 16S rDNA in deep samples highlighted how in some cases the dense surface-water formation (in this case High Salinity Shelf Water—HSSW) and downwelling can affect, at least for some phylotypes, the bacterial (16S rDNA based) community structure of the dark ocean.