Reflection and diffraction of internal solitary waves by a circular island

We have investigated the reflection and diffraction of first-mode and second-mode solitary waves by an island, using a three-dimensional nonhydrostatic numerical model. The model domain consists of a circular island 15 km in diameter in an ocean 300 m deep. We use prescribed density anomalies in an initially motionless ocean to produce highly energetic internal solitary waves; their subsequent propagation is subject to island perturbations with and without the effect of earth’s rotation. In addition to reflected waves, two wave branches pass around the island and reconnect behind it. Island perturbations to the first-mode and second-mode waves are qualitatively similar, but the latter is more profound because of the longer contact time and, in the presence of earth’s rotation, the scale compatibility between Rossby radius of the second baroclinic mode and the island diameter. Without earth’s rotation, reflected and diffracted waves are symmetrical relative to the longitudinal axis passing through the island center. With earth’s rotation, the current following the wave front veers to the right due to Coriolis deflection. For a westward propagating incoming wave, the deflection favors northward wave propagation in the region between the crossover point and the island, shifting the wave reconnection point behind the island northward. It also displaces the most visible part of the reflected waves to the southeast. In the presence of earth’s rotation, a second-mode incoming wave produces island-trapped internal Kelvin waves, which are visible after the passage of the wave front.     

A parabolic equation extended to account for rapidly varying topography

In this paper, following the procedure outlined by Li (1994. An evolution equation for water waves. Coastal Engineering, 23, 227-242) and Hsu and Wen (2000. A study of using parabolic model to describe wave breaking and wide-angle wave incidence. Journal of the Chinese Institute of Engineers, 23(4), 515–527) and Hsu and Wen (2000) the extended refraction–diffraction equation is recasted into a time-dependent parabolic equation. This model, which includes higher-order bottom effect terms, is extended to account for a rapidly varying topography and wave energy dissipation in the surf zone. The importance of the higher-order bottom effect terms is examined in terms of the relative water depth. The present model was tested for wave reflection in a number of different environments, namely from a plane slope with different inclinations, from a patch of periodic ripples. The model was also tested for wave height distribution around a circular shoal and wave breaking on a barred beach. The comparison of predictions with other numerical models and experimental data show that the validity of the present model for describing wave propagation over a rapidly varying seabed is satisfactory.     

Wave Refraction-Diffraction in the Presence of a Current

-Wave refraction-diffraction due to a large ocean structure and topography in the presence of a 'current are studied numerically. The mathematical model is the mild-slope equation developed by Kirby (1984). This equation is solved using a finite and boundary element method. The physical domain is devid-ed into two regions: a slowly varying topography region and a constant water depth region. For waves propagating in the constant water depth region, without current interfering, the mild- slope equation is then reduced to the Helmholtz equation which is solved by boundary element method. In varying topography region, this equation will be solved by finite element method. Conservation of mass and energy flux of the fluid between these two regions is required for composition of these two numerical methods. The numerical scheme proposed here is capable of dealing with water wave problems of different water depths with the main characters of these two methods.     

Origin of dolomite in sedimentary sequences: A critical analysis

Certain chemical conditions must have been fulfilled and certain hydrological framework must have prevailed when large bodies of sedimentary dolomites were formed. This paper discusses the chemistry of dolomite formation, analyses quantitatively the movement of subsurface waters and the relation of flow rate to dolomitization. The geologic environment favorable for dolomitization could be interpreted in terms of chemistry and/or hydrology. No new hypothesis of dolomitization is presented, only the minimum conditions necessary for dolomite formations are defined.

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Zusammenfassung Bestimmte chemische und hydrologische Voraussetzungen müssen bei der Bildung von großen Volumen sedimentären Dolomites vorgeherrscht haben. Die vorliegende Arbeit legt die chemischen Bildungsbedingungen dar und untersucht quantitativ die Bewegung von Grundwasser sowie die Beziehung der Durchflußmengen pro Zeiteinheit zur Dolomitisierung. Damit können die häufigsten geologischen Bedingungen, die eine Dolomitbildung begünstigen,chemisch und hydrologisch gedeutet werden. Neue Hypothesen für die Dolomitisierung werden nicht vorgelegt, sondern nur die minimalen Bedingungen definiert.

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Presented orally at the Mineralogical-Petrographical Institute of the University of Heidelberg, July 15th, 1965.     

中国南极球粒陨石的高精度钾同位素研究

钾和其他中等挥发性元素亏损是类地行星普遍的全岩化学成分特征之一,能用来示踪不同的亏损过程.球粒陨石是组成行星的前体物质,研究球粒陨石中钾同位素的亏损和分异机制,对于太阳系物质或行星的起源、形成和演化具有十分重要的意义.本文利用近年来发展的高精度钾同位素分析技术,测试了 14 个中国南极陨石以及6 个目击型陨石(Murchison、Allende、Ningqiang、Tagish Lake、Xinyang 和Banma)的全岩钾同位素组成.结果显示,21 个碳质球粒陨石全岩δ41 K值分布范围为－0. 62‰±0. 05‰至0. 37‰±0. 08‰,平均值为－0. 32‰± 0. 24‰(2SD),比全岩硅酸盐地球(BSE)稍重.18 个普通球粒陨石全岩数据(如果异常值 GRV 021603 除外)的δ41 K值分布范围为－1. 02‰±0. 05‰到－0. 61‰±0. 02‰,平均δ41 K值为－0. 81‰±0. 15‰(2SD),比全岩硅酸盐地球稍轻.2 个目击型陨石 Murchison(CM2 型)和 Allende(CV3 型),呈现较大的内部钾同位素差异(分别为0. 22‰和0. 16‰),可能反映了水蚀变导致的钾同位素在100 mg球粒陨石全岩尺度上的不均一性.小行星母体过程(水蚀变、热变质和冲击变质)不能很好地解释球粒陨石的钾同位素分馏,母体作为一个封闭体系只是平衡均一化同一个化学群内的钾同位素成分.不同化学群球粒陨石之间的钾同位素与钾元素之间没有显示明确的相关性,这一趋势与最近国际上发表的数据在误差范围内基本一致,太阳星云的单阶段热过程如蒸发或冷凝均不能很好地解释.核合成异常是一种可能的解释,大质量恒星的星风或者超新星爆发注入可以增加一些41 K到太阳星云中,从而在原始球粒陨石中保存下来,然而这一观点需要更多研究支持.     

L群普通球粒陨石母体的撞击历史

撞击作用发生在太阳系形成和演化的所有阶段,是最基本的地质过程之一.陨石可以从微观尺度记录下这些重要的过程.在所有陨石族群中,L 群普通球粒陨石保留了最完备的冲击变质记录,对撞击发生的时间、冲击过程中的物理条件提供了重要制约.矿物学证据表明,在太阳系形成 100 Ma 内,L 群陨石母体可能发生一次撞击裂解事件,并在随后重组.4. 48 Ga左右,原始小行星带经历大范围的撞击作用,这一事件也记录于L群普通球粒陨石中,可能是由月球大撞击事件溅射的大量碎屑进入到原始主小行星带引起.约800 Ma,包括L群陨石母体在内的内太阳系部分天体经历了同时期撞击事件,可能由这一时期裂解的大质量小行星产生的溅射物引发.L群陨石母体在～465 Ma发生撞击裂解,这一事件在 L 群陨石中保留了丰富的矿物学、年代学记录,并在地球全球奥陶纪地层发现相关信息.综合与该事件相关的所有L群陨石冲击变质特征,本文认为该裂解事件是由一颗大直径(18～22 km)石陨石质小行星,以较低速率(5～6 km/s)撞击导致.同位素年代学数据表明,L 群普通球粒陨石母体很可能未受到晚期大撞击事件的影响,这难以用L群陨石母体过小予以解释.可能的原因有:① L群普通球粒陨石母体在原始主小行星带分布非常有限,导致其受到晚期大撞击事件影响的概率不高;② 晚期大撞击事件对原始主小行星带的影响可能并没有之前估计的那么严重,一个持续时间更长但更加温和的撞击模型更加符合现阶段的观察.     

A hurricane surge risk assessment framework using the joint probability method and surge response functions

Hurricane surge events have caused devastating damage in active-hurricane areas all over the world. The ability to predict surge elevations and to use this information for damage estimation is fundamental for saving lives and protecting property. In this study, we developed a framework for evaluating hurricane flood risk and identifying areas that are more prone to them. The approach is based on the joint probability method with optimal sampling (JPM-OS) using surge response functions (SRFs) (JPM-OS-SRF). Derived from a discrete set of high-fidelity storm surge simulations, SRFs are non-dimensional, physics-based empirical equations with an algebraic form, used to rapidly estimate surge as a function of hurricane parameters (i.e., central pressure, radius, forward speed, approach angle and landfall location). The advantage of an SRF-based approach is that a continuum of storm scenarios can be efficiently evaluated and used to estimate continuous probability density functions for surge extremes, producing more statistically stable surge hazard assessments without adding measurably to epistemic uncertainty. SRFs were developed along the coastline and then used to estimate maximum surge elevations with respect to a set of hurricane parameters. Integrating information such as ground elevation, property value and population with the JPM-OS-SRF allows quantification of storm surge-induced hazard impacts over the continuum of storm possibilities, yielding a framework to create the following risk-based products, which can be used to assist in hurricane hazard management and decision making: (1) expected annual loss maps; (2) flood damage versus return period relationships; and (3) affected business (e.g., number of business, number of employees) versus return period relationships. By employing several simplifying assumptions, the framework is demonstrated at three northern Gulf of Mexico study sites exhibiting similar surge hazard exposure. The framework results reveal Gulfport, MS, USA is at relatively more risk of economic loss than Corpus Christi, TX, USA, and Panama City, FL, USA. Note that economic processes are complex and very interrelated to most other human activities. Our intention here is to present a methodology to quantify the flood damage (i.e., infrastructure economic loss, number of businesses affected, number of employees in these affected businesses and sales volume in these affected businesses) but not to discuss the complex interactions of these damages with other economic activities and recovery plans.     

南极格罗夫山普通球粒陨石的矿物岩石学特征

本文研究了第19次中国南极科学考察队收集的97块普通球粒陨石样品的矿物岩石学特征,在此基础上划分了陨石的岩石学类型、化学群、冲击变质和风化类型。共发现5块非平衡型普通球粒陨石:GRV 020011(L3),GRV 020035(H3),GRV 020054(H3),GRV 020137(L3)和GRV020169(L3)。化学群分类的结果是H群陨石24块,L群70块,LL群3块。多数样品的冲击变质程度较低,但也有少量样品具有S5型的冲击变质特征。样品的风化程度普遍较低,仅GRV020055(H5),GRV022123(L5)和GRV022462(LL6)3块陨石达到了W3型。     

Characteristics of the outer rise seaward of the Manila Trench and implications in Taiwan–Luzon convergent belt, South China Sea

The outer rise on the distal periphery of a subduction system is caused by emplacement of an accreted load onto the flexed oceanic lithosphere. By examining the bathymetry and free-air gravity anomaly data collected by satellite observations and marine reflection seismic data collected during the TAIGER project, we demonstrate the characteristics of the flexural outer rise seaward of the Manila Trench. The region of the outer rise on the westernmost periphery of the Manila subduction system is characterized by the positive free-air gravity anomaly seaward parallel to the Manila Trench and the morphological rise at the south of the Manila subduction system. A flexure simulation is performed based on the flexural profiles along the southern Manila Trench-outer system and the resulting effective elastic thickness values may provide an alternative aspect for the spreading rates of the South China Sea basin. Since both the western periphery of the Taiwan collision belt and Manila subduction belt are dominated by the strain regime of extension of flexural origin, it appears that the strain regime of flexural extension associated with the flexural forebulge of the Western Taiwan Foreland Basin to the north, and the strain regime of flexural extension associated with the outer rise seaward of the Manila Trench to the south are meridionally interconnected. This revised understanding of the strain regime of flexural extension origin west of the Taiwan–Luzon convergent belt provides an alternative point of view on the strain regime offshore SW Taiwan.     

Comparison of capability of time integration methods in capturing dynamic loading

Numerical properties of the time integration method proposed by the first author of this paper in 2007 are the same as those of the constant average acceleration method (AAM) for linear elastic systems, except that the capability to capture dynamic loading was not explored. It was found that there were different quadrature equations to predict the next step displacement increment. A modified quadrature equation of this method was derived so that the equation to determine the next step displacement was numerically equivalent to the equation used in the constant AAM. It was verified that the original form of this method, in general, had a better capability to capture dynamic loadings than the constant AAM. This excellent property, in addition to computational efficiency, will help to make this method competitive with general secondorder accurate integration methods.