Predicting landscape sensitivity to present and future floods in the Pacific Northwest,USA

Floods are the most frequent natural disaster, causing more loss of life and property than any other in the USA. Floods also strongly influence the structure and function of watersheds, stream channels, and aquatic ecosystems. The Pacific Northwest is particularly vulnerable to climatically driven changes in flood frequency and magnitude, because snowpacks that strongly influence flood generation are near the freezing point and thus sensitive to small changes in temperature. To improve predictions of future flooding potential and inform strategies to adapt to these changes, we mapped the sensitivity of landscapes to changes in peak flows due to climate warming across Oregon and Washington. We first developed principal component‐based models for predicting peak flows across a range of recurrence intervals (2‐, 10‐, 25‐, 50‐, and 100‐years) based on historical instantaneous peak flow data from 1000 gauged watersheds in Oregon and Washington. Key predictors of peak flows included drainage area and principal component scores for climate, land cover, soil, and topographic metrics. We then used these regression models to predict future peak flows by perturbing the climate variables based on future climate projections (2020s, 2040s, and 2080s) for the A1B emission scenario. For each recurrence interval, peak flow sensitivities were computed as the ratio of future to current peak flow magnitudes. Our analysis suggests that temperature‐induced changes in snowpack dynamics will result in large (>30–40%) increases in peak flow magnitude in some areas, principally the Cascades, Olympics, and Blue Mountains and parts of the western edge of the Rocky Mountains. Flood generation processes in lower elevation areas are less likely to be affected, but some of these areas may be impacted by floodwaters from upstream. These results can assist land, water, and infrastructure managers in identifying watersheds and resources that are particularly vulnerable to increased peak flows and developing plans to increase their resilience. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A Hydrological Budget (2002–2008) for a Large Subtropical Wetland Ecosystem Indicates Marine Groundwater Discharge Accompanies Diminished Freshwater Flow

Water budget parameters are estimated for Shark River Slough (SRS), the main drainage within Everglades National Park (ENP) from 2002 to 2008. Inputs to the water budget include surface water inflows and precipitation while outputs consist of evapotranspiration, discharge to the Gulf of Mexico and seepage losses due to municipal wellfield extraction. The daily change in volume of SRS is equated to the difference between input and outputs yielding a residual term consisting of component errors and net groundwater exchange. Results predict significant net groundwater discharge to the SRS peaking in June and positively correlated with surface water salinity at the mangrove ecotone, lagging by 1 month. Precipitation, the largest input to the SRS, is offset by ET (the largest output); thereby highlighting the importance of increasing fresh water inflows into ENP for maintaining conditions in terrestrial, estuarine, and marine ecosystems of South Florida.     

Impactites of the Haughton impact structure,Devon Island,Canadian High Arctic

Abstract— Contrary to the previous interpretation of a single allochthonous impactite lithology, combined field, optical, and analytical scanning electron microscopy (SEM) studies have revealed the presence of a series of impactites at the Haughton impact structure. In the crater interior, there is a consistent upward sequence from parautochthonous target rocks overlain by parautochthonous lithic (monomict) breccias, through allochthonous lithic (polymict) breccia, into pale grey allochthonous impact melt breccias. The groundmass of the pale grey impact melt breccias consists of microcrystalline calcite, silicate impact melt glass, and anhydrite. Analytical data and microtextures indicate that these phases represent a series of impact‐generated melts that were molten at the time of, and following, deposition. Impact melt glass clasts are present in approximately half of the samples studied. Consideration of the groundmass phases and impact glass clasts reveal that impactites of the crater interior contain shock‐melted sedimentary material from depths of >920 to <1880 m in the pre‐impact target sequence. Two principal impactites have been recognized in the near‐surface crater rim region of Haughton. Pale yellow‐brown allochthonous impact melt breccias and megablocks are overlain by pale grey allochthonous impact melt breccias. The former are derived from depths of >200 to <760 m and are interpreted as remnants of the continuous ejecta blanket. The pale grey impact melt breccias, although similar to the impact melt breccias of the crater interior, are more carbonate‐rich and do not appear to have incorporated clasts from the crystalline basement. Thus, the spatial distribution of the crater‐fill impactites at Haughton, the stratigraphic succession from target rocks to allochthonous impactites, the recognition of large volumes of impact melt breccias, and their probable original volume are all analogous to characteristics of coherent impact melt layers in comparatively sized structures formed in crystalline targets.     

A comprehensive model current system for high-latitude magnetic activity - I. The steady state system

Summary. Magnetic variations at high latitudes represent the combination of magnetic perturbations from several different current systems. The relative effects of each of the contributory current systems vary from event to event, resulting in changes in magnetic perturbation patterns in a given local time sector which are a function of several variables, e.g. level of magnetospheric activity, spectrum of precipitating particles responsible for ionospheric conductivity, configuration of interplanetary magnetic field, etc. In this paper we extend the work of Hughes & Rostoker in which the steady state perturbation pattern in each local time sector was established from ground-based meridian line magnetometer data. We shall define the various current systems which contribute to the high-latitude magnetic perturbation pattern and we shall construct the model composite current system which best explains the high-latitude observations in the winter months. We shall discuss changes in this pattern as a function of season and as a function of the configuration of the interplanetary magnetic field. Finally, we shall relate the geometrical configuration of the ionosphere—magnetosphere current flow to the convection of plasma in the magnetosphere.     

铂族元素在地壳中的富集:以布什维尔德杂岩为例

地幔是地壳铂族元素富集的主要源库。铂族元素迁移主要有两个途径:(1)地幔部分熔融物质侵入地壳;(2)地幔板片就位于俯冲/碰撞带。前一途径比后一途径重要得多。地幔物质进入地壳造成铂族元素富集并成为可供开采的主矿产而非副产品,这一过程可包含许多成矿作用机制:(i)基性侵入体中Ni-Cu硫化物矿浆的发育,岩浆冷却与分离结晶作用导致富含Cu,Pt,Pd的硫化物矿浆的形成;(ii)层状侵入体一定层位形成高品位的铂族元素硫化物层,伴生或不伴生铬铁岩;(iii)富铂族元素及硫化物的岩浆沿着层状侵入体的边缘就位;(iv)直至层状侵入体结晶分异作用晚期的硫化物不混溶滞后分离;(v)不发育硫化物不混溶作用的铬铁矿结晶作用;(vi)低程度硫化物浸染带中的热液作用与铂族元素富集;(vii)乌拉尔-阿拉斯加型侵入体重结晶过程中的铂族元素与铬铁矿的次生富集作用,岩体在风化过程中形成砂矿床;(viii)黑色页岩形成过程中Pt的富集。南非布什维尔德火成杂岩蕴藏世界Pt资源的75%,Pd资源的54%,Rh资源的82%,并具有(ii)、(iii)、(iv)、(v)、(vi)成矿作用的实例。在这些作用中,作用(ii)形成的现有经济储量和资源量占90%,作用(iii)占9%。Merensky矿层(占总资源量30%)是一个铂族元素富集层位,它含1~3铬铁矿薄层,在可采宽度内硫化物平均含量为1%~3%(质量分数)。硫化物一般被认为是铂族元素的主要聚集体。该矿层由两个或两个以上含硫化物的基性热岩浆上升汇聚而成。这些岩浆的汇聚造成超镁铁质堆晶岩的厚度(主要是斜方辉石岩,某些地区包括橄榄岩)变化于50cm至数米之间。开采通常集中在厚度不到1m的地带。矿层的成因至今仍存在争议,一些观点认为铂族元素来自下部上升的热液流体,另一些观点认为铂族元素来自上部岩浆的硫化物沉降作用,并形成了Merensky辉石岩。已经知道矿层上覆的辉石岩、苏长岩和斜长岩中矿物来自两种岩浆类型:一种富含MgO(12%,质量分数)和Cr,而贫Al2O3(12%);另一种含典型的粒玄岩成分。UG-2铬铁岩含有全部经济资源量的58%,由一0.6~1m厚的铬铁岩层(有时见辉石岩夹层)和上覆的1~3层由铬铁矿所构成的薄层。虽然硫化物被认为至少是某些情况下对铂族元素的富集起作用,但UG-2的硫化物含量(0.5%~1.5%)显著低于Merensky矿层。UG-2层之下共有13个铬铁岩层位,所有的都含铂族元素,虽然铂族元素总含量和(Pt+Pd)/(Ru+Ir+Os)比值远低于UG-2。UG-2内所含的辉石岩"夹层"具高的87Sr/86Sr比值,说明与顶部熔融岩石的混合促进了铬铁岩和硫化物的形成。作用(iii)的主要实例是Platreef。目前它占总资源量的9%。不过,沿该带正积极开展找矿勘探工作,这一比例将来还会提高。这一矿层的厚度比Merensky和UG-2都要大,目前开采厚度达50多米。Platreef呈带状,上部为斜方辉石岩的堆晶岩;下部为辉石岩、长石辉石岩和苏长岩,它们与页岩、铁矿层和白云岩强烈相互作用,直接形成了底盘岩石。笔者认为Platreef是不同期次岩浆作用的结果,这些作用形成了不同的单元产物,包括布什维尔德主岩浆房的UG-2和Merensky矿层。新的岩浆进入主岩浆房会造成先存岩浆移位、岩浆错动并会冲破岩浆房的壁。圆筒状、带状岩管中的超镁铁岩含极高的Pt品位,在布什维尔德杂岩的下部切穿堆晶层,被认为是热液再活化的产物。它们现在未被开采,只是构成存封的铂族元素资源,对整个杂岩体资源没有重要的贡献。     

Identifying the spatial pattern and importance of hydro‐geomorphic drainage impairments on unpaved roads in the northeastern USA

Roads have been widely studied as sources of runoff and sediment and identified as pollutant production sources to receiving waters. Despite the wealth of research on logging roads in forested, upland settings, little work has been conducted to examine the role of extensive networks of rural, low‐volume, unpaved roads on water quality degradation at the catchment scale. We studied a network of municipal unpaved roads in the northeastern US to identify the type and spatial extent of ‘hydro‐geomorphic impairments’ to water quality. We mapped erosional and depositional features on roads to develop an estimate of pollutant production. We also mapped the type and location of design interventions or best management practices (BMPs) used to improve road drainage and mitigate water quality impairment. We used statistical analyses to identify key controls on the frequency and magnitude of erosional features on the road network, and GIS to scale up from the survey results to the catchment scale to identify the likely importance of unpaved roads as a pollutant source in this setting. An average of 21 hydro‐geomorphic impairments were mapped per kilometer of road, averaging 0.3 m³ in volume. Road gradient and slope position were key controls on the occurrence of these features. The presence of BMPs effectively reduced erosion frequency. Scaled up to the watershed and using a conservative estimate of road–stream connectivity, our results for the Winooski River watershed in the northeastern US suggest that roughly 16% and 6% of the average annual sediment and phosphorus flux, respectively, of the Winooski River may be derived from unpaved roads. Our study identifies an under‐appreciated source of water quality degradation in rural watersheds, provides insights into identifying ‘hot spots’ of pollutant production associated with these networks, and points to effectiveness of design interventions in mitigating these adverse impacts on water quality. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Cultural sediment analyses and transitions in early fishing activity at Langenesværet,Vesterålen,Northern Norway

The development of specialized and commercial fishing activity in the island archipelago of Lofoten and Vesterålen in northern Norway is a critical foundation from which to understand the subsequent spread of commercial fishing across the north Atlantic region during the medieval and early modern period. One little understood aspect of this development is the relationship between medieval commercial fishing stations (fiskevaer) and earlier fishing activity. In this article, cultural sediment deposits at Langenesværet, Vesterålen, Northern Norway provide an opportunity to examine this relationship and its implications for current historical models of fishing development in northern Norway and the north Atlantic region. Conventional and AMS radiocarbon dating techniques are used to establish a chronology for the deposits, while activities associated with the sediments are characterized using thin‐section micromorphology supported by proton induced X‐ray emission spectrometry (PIXE). The results suggest that the site commenced formation as early as ca. 3000 B.C. and that the site was first used for specialized fishing activity from the early centuries A.D. The medieval commercial fiskevaer settlement at Langenesværet was introduced to an area that had a longstanding tradition of specialised fishing activity. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.