Water protection zoning of the Baikal natural territory: Conflicts of laws,landscape-hydrological approach

We examine the complicated situation with demarcation of the boundary of the Lake Baikal water protection zone. It was found that although the principles of ecological zoning, a unique legal instrument regulating the development of a territory with a special nature conservation status and the preservation of the Lake Baikal ecosystem, have been developed and implemented, it was not until 2015 that the boundaries of the water protection zone of Lake Baikal itself were defined. The boundaries of the water protection zone along the boundary of the central ecological zone of Lake Baikal as established by a Decree of the RF Government combined severe restrictions on water use of the two zones across the territory with the area more than 50 thou km2. It is concluded that there is a need to reconsider the decision and develop the project of the water protection zone of Lake Baikal substantiated from the landscape-hydrological perspective. It is demonstrated that the substantiation of the size of the water protection zone must rely on the hydrological runoff-forming and runoffregulating functions of landscapes that determine the formation and transformation of the local runoff between the watershed and the draining water body. The approach to implementing the water protection zoning project on the landscape-hydrological principles is developed to provide maximum protection of Lake Baikal against the input of pollutants with the subsurface and surface runoff from the neighboring coastal territories due to the natural processes of self-purification in landscapes and soil-ground layers. The main criterion is defined for the width of the water protection zone: all pollutants beyond the imposed limits of the zone are drained by the inflows from the lake and do not enter directly Lake Baikal; also, the protection of subsurface waters from the vertical penetration of pollutants is taken into account. For the settlements situation on the shores of Lake Baikal, it is proposed to delineate the boundary of the lake’s water protection zone having regard to the existing and future plans of development and engineering-technological infrastructuring of the territory.     

Spatiotemporal changes in the ecological status of water bodies on the mining territories of the Syunik Province (Republic of Armenia)

We discuss the changes in hydrological characteristics of water bodies caused by freshwater withdrawals to meet the interests of various users on the territory of the Syunik Province of the Republic of Armenia. An analysis is made of the possibilities of combining the water withdrawal for mining enterprises and for agriculture. The problems with water supply of settlements located on this territory are highlighted. The temporal dynamics of water withdrawals is presented for separate rivers as well as its relationship with the minimum and ecological flow. It is found that the anthropogenic load on water bodies is more clearly pronounced in the case of a degradation of the quality of water resources as a result of the industrial waste water diversion, and wash-out of pollutants from the territory of enterprises during floods and in the case of emergency input of wastes from tailings pools, rock spoil heaps and waste storage areas. Results of these authors’ observations, data of routine observations and material from published sources were used in analyzing the water quality in the rivers of the Syunik Province. We calculated the coefficients of ecological quality and determined the river water quality classes according to physicochemical and biological indicators. Assessments of the river water quality class were made in accordance with the methodology of Directive 2000/60/EC. We identified the main pollutants that are responsible for the water quality class, and the factors of impact on natural waters governing the ecological status of water bodies. A comprehensive analysis is made of the intensity of anthropogenic impact on surface waters. The ecological status of water bodies is determined. Spatial changes in the quality indicators of the water of the region’s main rivers are demonstrated. Special emphasis is placed on the need to implement immediate measures to improve technological processes and bring the operation of enterprises into compliance with ecological normative standards.     

Vegetation as a factor in the system of natural environment preservation of Prebaikalia

A central role in the formation of the natural environment of Prebaikalia is played by vegetation having the environment-forming and environment-protective functions. Nowadays, it is experiencing ever increasing anthropogenic impacts which lead to disturbances in its structure and decrease its ecological potential. This creates certain challenges of a local and regional character, because the main territory of the region is within the zone of atmospheric influence and within the western portion of the central ecological zone of the Baikal natural territory focus on preserving the ecosystem of Lake Baikal as the UNESCO World Natural Heritage site. Therefore, the main direction of nature conservation activity aimed at improving the quality of the region’s natural environment remains focused on the preservation and recovery and of its primary vegetation. Some measures are suggested concerning ecologically oriented nature management in Prebaikalia. We have defined the goals for the scientific accompaniment of the measures for the preservation of vegetation as an important factor of the environmental quality. The paper demonstrates the effectiveness of integrated study into the entire florocenotic diversity of modern vegetation, its evolutionary-genetic basis and the ecological and dynamical potentials of plant communities for the purposes of forecasting the ecologically oriented development of the region’s natural environment. The recommendations are formulated in accordance with the State Ecological Program for the period until 2030. The map entitled “Protection of vegetation in Prebaikalia (recommendations for optimization of the ecological policy)” has been developed, which provides information on territories with a different environmental quality having regard to the ecological potential. The legend includes the following parts of the map: special preservation of primary vegetation (full and partial), recovery of disturbed vegetation (active and passive recovery of primary forests), and economic rational (ecologically oriented) use of vegetation.     

Landscape-Hydrological Assessment of the Lake Baikal Coast for Recreational Development Purposes

This paper considers the theoretical and methodological aspects of landscape-hydrological analysis in substantiating the possible development of recreational activities within the boundaries of the central ecological zone of the Baikal natural territory (BNT CEZ) in Irkutsk oblast. The hydrological characteristics of the landscapes in terms of their sensitivity and resistance to natural changes and external influences are given. We carried out a landscape-hydrological zoning for the BNT CEZ territory within the boundaries of Irkutsk oblast having regard to the conditions of runoff formation, the characteristic features of its regulation in various landscapes, and to the possibility of preserving the natural water regime and the waterecological state in utilizing the territory. It is determined that the main factors for the landscape differentiation in assessing the advisability of recreational development without damage to the Lake Baikal ecosystem and to the natural waters of BNT CEZ as a whole are the hydrological properties of landscapes and resistance of natural complexes to impacts. It is found that the level of realization of the main hydrological functions of landscapes, i. e. the runoff formation, runoff regulation and water protection functions, characterizes the involvement of the natural complex in the formation of quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the local runoff, in the replenishment processes of dynamical reserves of subsurface waters, the regulation of natural floods and freshets, the preservation of the water-ecological potential of the territory. As a result a landscape-hydrological framework zoning of the territory using the landscape planning tools, three zones have been identified: the zone of the preservation of the existing state, the zone of regulated use, and the zone of territorial development. The proposed zones have general recommendations for the preservation of the hydrological and water-ecological indicators of the natural complexes which imply abandoning any activity in areas of particularly high value and highly sensitive to impacts, and the possibility of developing recreational activities in sustainable areas, subject to environmental protection measures.     

Cartographic modeling of pipeline routes in the arctic zone of Siberia

This paper presents the scientific-methodological approaches to cartographic GIS-based modeling of pipelines with geoecological restrictions which essentially imply a spatial multiparametric analysis of the natural potential of the study territory in order to explore its possibilities of consistently performing the socioeconomic functions as pre-assigned without disturbing the life-support (environment and resource reproduction) functions. The suggested technique is illustrated by the example of selecting the route for the laying of the pipeline system on the model territory in the arctic zone of Siberia. Critical principles are applied to the technique of cartographic modeling of the pipeline route, i.e. the principles of systemacy, ecological security, priority of estimated indicators, unity of assessment and economic expediency. The following investigation methods were used in implementing the technique: ranking of the properties of natural landscapes according to their influence on the suitability of the territory, qualimetric assessments for the suitability classes of lands of natural systems, and graph theory for determining the optimal pipeline route on the basis of Dijkstra’s algorithm. The table of unnormalized and normalized weight factors is compiled, which are taken in consideration for assessing the suitability of natural landscape components and their characteristic properties. Archival and published reference data are used to calculate the reference values of the indicators used in an integral assessment of the suitability of the territory for the laying of the pipeline route.     

Water regime of the Argun’ river and Lake Hulun Nur under anthropogenic impact

In arid regions of Central Asia, cyclicity in the humidification behavior of a region shows long-term trends of changes in the water levels of closed lakes. Thus, the last 10 years saw a decrease in the water level by several meters on one of the region’s largest lakes — Hulun Nur (PRC). For water level stabilization on the PRC’s territory, a package of measures is undertaken for a partial Hailar river flow transfer (in the upper reaches of the Argun’ river) to Lake Hulun Nur. It is obvious that the lake’s water level regime will experience substantial changes. This paper discusses a variety of consequences of the river flow transfer and different water management modes, and forecasts the lake’s possible level regime, the Argun’ river discharge and the ecological consequences of measures of this kind for the Russian part of the drainage basin.     

洪湖湿地演替的影响因素与生态恢复对策

在自然因素（地质构造发育、气候、水文等）及人为因素（农业政策、人口压力、水利工程、环境污染等）对洪湖湿地共同作用下,洪湖湿地的自然演替发生了改变。自然因素影响下洪湖湿地生态系统有向逆演化方向演替的趋势,而不合理的人为影响因素加速了正演化过程。在系统地分析两种影响因素对洪湖湿地演替影响的基础匕,针对人为影响因素产生的不良影响,初步提出了洪湖湿地生态恢复的一些对策,包括加强立法及管理、加强污染控制、扩大湖泊面积、加强水利工程和湿地自然保护区的建设和管理、开展湿地保护教育,提高公众保护意识以及加强监测等。通过湖北省各级政府及部门的努力,有望恢复洪湖湿地良好的生态环境。     

Response of permafrost landscapes of Central Yakutia to current changes of climate,and anthropogenic impacts

We discuss the state of permafrost landscapes of Central Yakutia under the influence of current changes of climate and anthropogenic impacts. This study uses the data from the monitoring stations operated by the Permafrost Institute SB RAS, and from the Yakutsk and Pokrovsk meteorological stations. It is found that there is a rather good correlation between the data from the monitoring stations and from the Pokrovsk meteorological station. The last decade saw a considerable rise in temperatures of earth materials. The most sensitive to cliate change are the disturbed landscapes, primarily treeless landscapes such as anthropogenic complexes, and burned-out forests.     

Geoecological approach to infrastructural development of hiking trails in federal-level SPNA (as exemplified by the Baikalskii nature reserve)

The comprehensive utilization of the technique for substantiating the promotion of hiking tourism, with emphasis on infrastructural development to ease access to recreational sites for different categories of visitors. The goal of using specialized hiking trails is to furnish a means of acquiring a familiarity with the unique landscapes of the Khamar-Daban mountain range. The technique contains four consecutive stages, and their implementation is illustrated in terms of the model territory. An analysis is made of the socioeconomic and geoecological characteristics of the Baikalskii Biosphere Reserve, which, together with landscape assessment, serves as a basis for the generation of the zoning map for possibilities and restrictions as regards the promotion and development of hiking tourism. A zoning is provided, which takes into consideration the possibilities of hiking tourism, based on assessing a territory’s transport accessibility, estimating the cost of preparing a trail of each class, and on the geoecological characteristics of landscape. The map that identifies seven zones of different-intensity transformation of the territory for an integral development of hiking tourism is used in making recommendations for the preparation of hiking trails in the Baikalskii Nature Reserve. The landscapes are combined into zones according to the degree of suitability for the construction of trails of different classes. The algorithm for preparation of trails consisting of 10 consecutive stages (three stages of planning, and seven stages of preparation) is applied for a number of linear features. The most suitable classes of preparation are indicated for these trails, in accordance with the characteristics of landscapes and engineering restrictions within their boundaries.     

Mining pollution triggered a regime shift in the cladoceran community of Lake Kirkkojärvi,southern Finland

Mining is one of the key industries in the world and mine water pollution is a serious threat to aquatic ecosystems. Historical monitoring data on the pollution history and impacts in aquatic ecosystems, however, are rarely available, so paleolimnological methods are required to explore the consequences of past pollution. We studied the history of cladoceran community dynamics in Lake Kirkkojärvi, southern Finland, including the periods before, during and after mining. We analyzed the geochemical composition and cladoceran subfossil remains in a ²¹⁰Pb-dated sediment core to evaluate the magnitude, rate, and direction of cladoceran community changes through time. The cladoceran community was altered significantly by mining activity that occurred during the mid-twentieth century. During more recent times, however, eutrophication effects have overridden the impacts of mining. After mining ceased, the cladoceran community underwent an abrupt regime shift towards taxa that reflect more eutrophic conditions. This change was caused by intensive farming activity and fertilizer use over the past few decades. The recent history of Lake Kirkkojärvi is a textbook example of a regime shift triggered by multiple human-caused stressors. Our findings also highlight the utility of cladocerans as bio-indicators in pollution research and illustrate the sensitivity of aquatic ecosystems to anthropogenic modification.     

Desertification dynamics of arid ecosystems in Inner Asia

Presented are the results from a geoecological monitoring of natural and anthropogenic changes in the situation in the desert-steppe region of Inner Asia (Great Lakes Depression), based on space images at intervals of 27–30 years, published data, and the authors’ ground-based observations. The changes identified in this study are associated with global hydrothermal processes, and with the influence of anthropogenic pressure.     

Beyond slash-and-burn: The roles of human activities,altered hydrology and fuels in peat fires in Central Kalimantan,Indonesia

Near-annual landscape-scale fires in Indonesia's peatlands have caused severe air pollution, economic losses, and health impacts for millions of Southeast Asia residents. While the extent of fires across the peatland surface has been widely attributed to widespread peatland drainage for plantation agriculture, fires that transition from surface into sub-surface soil-based fires are the source of the most dangerous air pollution. Yet the mechanisms by which this transition occurs have rarely been considered, particularly in diversely managed landscapes. Integrating physical geography methods, including active fire scene evaluations and hydrological monitoring, with qualitative methods such as retrospective fire scene evaluations and semi-structured interviews, this article discusses how and why sub-surface peat fire transition occurs in an intensively altered peatland ecosystem in Indonesia's Central Kalimantan province. We demonstrate that variable water table levels and flammable surface vegetation (fire fuels) are co-produced socio-political and biophysical phenomena that enable the conditions in which surface fire is likely to transition into peat fire and increase landscape vulnerability to ongoing, uncontrollable annual fires. This localized understanding of peat fire transition counters normative causal narratives of tropical fire such as ‘slash-and-burn’, with implications for the management of new fire regimes in inhabited landscapes.     

A demineralization mechanism for Lake Balkhash

Lake Balkhash is one of the many closed lakes in Central Asia. Mechanisms of demineralization in Lake Balkhash were considered from results of surveys undertaken on the lake and along the Ili River. Electrical conductivity (EC) values at the eastern coast in south-western Lake Balkhash were higher than those of the western coast. The Ili River enters at the south-western corner of the lake, so that EC values of this area are low. This water flows westwards. The distribution of Ca₂₊ concentrations showed that these were lower value in Lake Balkhash than along the Ili River, implying Ca₂₊ removal by the lake. Amongst suspended mineral matter in the lake occur calcite and dolomite. Thus, a possible mechanism of calcium removal is that it is removed as crystals of calcite or dolomite. SO ₄ ^2– concentration within the lake has increased for the past 37 years. This may be caused by the discharge into the lake from the city of Balkhash of waste water from a copper smelter.     

基于GF-1影像的洞庭湖区水体水质遥感监测

湖泊水质监测是有效开展湖泊水环境综合管理与水污染防治实施的基础,也是湖泊藻华风险评估与生态安全建设的重要依据。本文基于GF-1号影像对2014-2016年洞庭湖水体的叶绿素a浓度、悬浮物浓度和透明度展开遥感监测,结果表明：叶绿素a主要集中在水流速度较慢的安乐湖、大小西湖和东洞庭湖西部地区,其他区域水体扰动力大,叶绿素含量a较低。透明度从北到南递增,与悬浮物浓度的分布趋势相反,符合常规监测规律。东洞庭湖水质较南洞庭湖和西洞庭湖差,水污染程度处于全湖最高水平。GF-1数据可精确反映叶绿素a浓度、悬浮物浓度和透明度指数的空间变化规律,也为后续高分遥感影像湖泊水质监测的应用研究提供了重要参考。     

基于Google Earth的巴尔喀什湖流域中下游水资源开发利用研究

 常规的信息收集渠道难以获取国际河流研究所需的有效信息,探索新的信息收集方式对资料稀缺区开展水文水资源研究十分必要且关键。在Internet海量信息中,Google Earth（GE）平台的出现,为资源环境、交通规划等诸多领域提供了“身临其境”的远距离信息检索模式。通过基于GE平台的资料稀缺区水资源开发利用状况评价的应用框架和评价方法,并以巴尔喀什湖流域中下游为例开展了应用研究。结果表明：GE平台可成为资料稀缺区水资源开发利用研究的有效信息收集手段,文中所提出的框架、应用流程和评价方法具有较好的可操作性;研究区在1990年初就形成了以伊犁河中下游为主体、准噶尔区与巴尔喀什湖北部诸小河为重要用水区的基本格局;随着研究区经济社会发展的剧烈波动,其用水量经历了“增长-顶峰-剧减-恢复性增长”的演变格局,目前其用水量预计已恢复至20世纪80年代中期的水平,即65×108 m3左右。     

The Baikal problem: History and present (the 25<Superscript>th</Superscript> anniversary of the establishment of the Government Commission for Baikal)

This paper provides an overview of the documents on the preservation and sustainable use of natural resources within the Lake Baikal drainage basin. An analysis is made of the results of the environmental activity during the period of planned economy and post-perestroika. In the reform years, Baikal was included on the List of the World Natural Heritage Sites, the Federal Law “On the protection of Lake Baikal” was adopted as well as three federal target programs of the protection of the lake and socioeconomic development of the Baikal natural territory. Due to funding shortages, however, they are hardly implemented. The latest legal acts substantially restrict the rights of local residents to land privatization, the development of the social infrastructure, and to use natural resources. Furthermore, in spite of a large number of federal nature conservation directives, closure of many enterprises and reductions in emissions, the ecological situation on Lake Baikal is not improving. Among the problems is the negative attitude of local residents toward the restriction of their constitutional rights to property and economic activity. In addition, all ecological legislative acts are adopted without any public discussion and funding of environmental protection expenditures is not a priority. An improvement of the ecological situation on Baikal is possible only through a further development of the region’s environmentally safe economy and by raising the living standards of the local population on the principles of sustainable development with due regard for the interests of future generations.     

Landscape-hydrological regularities of runoff formation within the lake baikal watershed basin

Presented are the results from a landscape-hydrological investigation into the Lake Baikal drainage area. The study revealed the main regularities of runoff formation during different hydraulicity phases. A zoning of the territory in accordance with the rate of water yield of landscapes is presented, and areas of formation of extreme hydrological characteristics are substantiated and identified.     

Spatial correlations between urbanization and river water pollution in the heavily polluted area of Taihu Lake Basin, China

Water pollution in the Taihu Lake Basin has been the focus of attention in China and abroad for a long time, due to its position in the forefront of urban development in China. Based on data gathering and processing from 84 monitoring sections in this heavily polluted area, this study first analyzes spatial patterns of urbanization and the distribution of river water pollution, and then uses the GeoDa bivariate spatial autocorrelation model to investigate the spatial correlation between urbanization and river water pollution at the scale of township units. The results show that urbanization has adverse impacts on water pollution, and the influence varies in different levels of development areas. The urban township units have the highest level of urbanization and highest pollution, but the best water quality; the suburban units have lower level of urbanization, but higher pollution and worse water quality; however the rural units have the lowest level of urbanization and lowest pollution, mainly affected by upstream pollution, but worst water quality. Lastly, urban and rural planning committees, while actively promoting the process of development in the region, should gradually resolve the issue of pollution control lagging behind urban life and urban develop- ment, giving priority to construction of centralized sewage treatment facilities and associated pipeline network coverage in the rural areas and suburban areas.     

Chemical composition of snow in the water area of Lake Baikal and on the adjacent territory

It is found that pollution of the territory from local sources of the zone of atmospheric influence spreads over several tens of kilometers along the prevailing wind direction, and in the central zone it is replaced by regional pollution. Snow pollution in the water area of Lake Baikal was recorded near coastal settlements and in the mouth of the Selenga river. It is established that the southern hollow of Baikal holds the lead in the input of NO₂, NO₃, NH₄, PO₄, F, Al, Na, Ba, Mo, Mn, Pb, Cu, Zn, Sr, Hg and oil products to the lake’s water area in spite of the fact that it is twice as small as the northern hollow. The northern hollow receives much larger amounts of SO₄, H₂CO₃, Cl, Ca, Mg and K than the northern hollow, and much larger amounts of Be, V, Cr and Co than the middle hollow, which is associated with the operation of coastal enterprises, boilers, thermoelectric plants, stove heating, automobile exhaust emissions, and with the natural transport of dust in snow-deficient areas of the middle hollow. It is determined that that last five years saw a slight increase in regional pollution for separate components. It is shown that in the late 1990s and in the early 2000s, pollution decreased twice, which was due to the setback in industrial production.