Numerical simulation on the rainout-removal of sulfur dioxide and acidification of precipitation from stratiform clouds

The rainout-removal of SO₂ and the acidification of precipitation from stratiform clouds are simulated using a one-dimensional, time-dependent model, parameterized microphysically in which dissolution and dissociation of gaseous SO₂ and H₂O₂, and oxidation reaction in aqueous phase are taken into account. The effects of dynamic factors, including updraft flow and turbulent transport, and the concentration of gaseous SO₂ and H₂O₂ being transported into the clouds on pH value of the precipitation, the conversion rateS(IV)-S(VI) and the wet deposition rate of SO₂ are discussed. This work was supported by fund from the National Scientific Foundation of China.     

HNO3 and PSC Measurements from the Transall: Sequestering of HNO3 in the Winter of 1994/95

In the winter of 1994/95 the TRANSALL research aircraft performed several flights in the region of the Arctic vortex during the period of low stratospheric temperatures. The results of simultaneous measurements of HNO3 column amounts by the Michelson Interferometer for Passive Atmospheric Sounding (MIPAS) and of aerosol backscatter profiles by the Ozone Lidar EXperiment (OLEX) are presented for two typical flight scenarios across the polar vortex boundary on December 17, 1994 and January 11/12, 1995. On December 17 and January 12, the column amounts of gaseous HNO3 decreased significantly in regions with low stratospheric temperatures. This decrease was correlated with the extent of the polar stratospheric clouds. Depolarisation measurements showed that type Ib PSCs were observed primarily, but equilibrium calculations for H2SO4/HNO3/H2O aerosols seem to underestimate the observed HNO3 sequestering.     

Nitrosyl and Nitryl Chloride Formation in H2SO4/HNO3/H2O/HCl Solutions at 200 K

Infrared spectroscopy has been used to measure the vapor pressure of chlorine containing species generated from H2SO4/HNO3/H2O/HCl solutions at 200 K. The vapor pressure was observed to be a function of solution composition. Two solution compositions were investigated. One solution remained a liquid whereas the second solution was a mixed liquid and solid phase (an ice slurry). The liquid solution had a composition of 64.6 wt.% H2SO4/4.8 wt.% HNO3/30.1 wt.% H2O/0.5 wt.% HCl and produced only vapor phase HCl. The ice slurry solution had a composition of 76.6 wt.% H2SO4/3.0 wt.% HNO3/20.1 wt.% H2O/0.3 wt.% HCl and produced HCl, ClNO, and ClNO2 vapor phase components. The sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and water content of these solutions are representative of those present in polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs), however the HCl concentrations are much higher than present within these clouds. The partitioning of chlorine between vapor phase HCl (50%) and ClNO/ClNO2 (50%) for the ice slurry solution suggests a possible mechanism of halogen activation within PSCs. A reaction mechanism to model the observed chemistry is proposed.     

Multiphase chemistry and acidity of clouds at Kleiner Feldberg

The chemistry of cloud multiphase systems was studied within the Kleiner Feldberg Cloud Experiment 1990. The clouds encountered during this experimental campaign could be divided into two categories according to the origin of air masses in which the clouds formed. From the chemical point of view, clouds passing the sampling site during the first period of the campaign (26 October-4 November) were characterized by lower pollutant loading and higher pH, as compared to clouds during the final period of the experimental campaign (10–13 November). The study of multiphase partitioning of the main chemical constituents of the cloud systems and of atmospheric acidity within the multiphase systems themselves (gas + interstitial aerosol + liquid droplets) are presented in this paper. A general lack of gaseous NH₃ was found in these cloud systems, which caused a lack of buffer capacity toward acid addition. Evidence supports the hypothesis that the higher acidity of the cloud systems during this final period of the campaign was due to input of HNO₃. Our measurements, however, could not determine whether the observed input was due to scavenging of gaseous HNO₃ from the air feeding into the cloud, or to heterogeneous HNO₃ formation via NO₂ oxidation by O₃ to NO₃ and N₂O₅. Sulfate in cloud droplets mainly originated from aerosol SO ₄ ^2– scavenging, since S(IV) to S(VI) liquid phase conversion was inhibited due to both lack of H₂O₂ and low pH of cloud droplets, which made O₃ and metal catalyzed S(IV) oxidation inefficient.     

辽宁农村代表区域降水离子组成及与气态污染物相关性

对辽宁农村代表区域站点——辽中县马龙村观测站2007年2月至2008年1月酸雨、气态污染物浓度观测资料进行了研究。结果表明：辽中站降水的化学组成阴离子主要为SO4^2-和NO3-阳离子主要为NH4和Ca2＋,SO4^2-／NO3-比值为2．9．Na＋／Cl-比值较大,大于1。各种离子浓度冬春季高,夏秋季较低,表明研究区域降水酸化与污染关系不显著。实测的9种主要阴离子、阳离子总浓度比（∑阴离子／∑阳离子）与降水pH值相关性不高,表明目前酸雨研究观测的主要9种阴阳离子不能完全包括降水中的离子组成。降水酸性与近地面污染气体浓度相关各异,pH与NOx、CO、NO2和O3浓度有较明显的负相关,与SO2浓度负相关不明显;降水pH值与颗粒物等碱性污染物浓度正相关明显。降水中主要致酸离子SO4^2-和NO3-的浓度与相应酸性气体污染物SO2和NOx近地面浓度的相关不明显。     

基于美国AMF寿县观测的云特性研究

美国能源部大气辐射观测计划移动观测ARMAMF（atmospheric radiation measurement mobile facility）2008年首次在我国寿县开展综合观测,为研究云特性提供了很好的资料平台。本文在此次云雷达等观测资料基础上,研究了寿县秋末冬初云高、云厚、云量及其辐射特性,结果发现,寿县有76．3％的观测日有云出现,54．0％的观测时间有云覆盖,中云（以下简称M云）和高云（以下简称H云）出现频率占全部云系的76．7％,天气系统对寿县云系形成有较大影响;云底高度大于3km的降水性云（以下简称P云）出现频率占全部P云的67．7％,是云底高度小于3kmP云的5．3倍,发生在下午的降水占全部P云的47．8％,气溶胶可能对P云的这种分布有较大影响;云和气溶胶减少地面短波辐射的日均值达一99．1W／m。,其中气溶胶减少约占25．1％。不同高度和厚度云对地面辐射通量的影响有较大差异,P云产生最大的冷却效应（一201．9W／m。）,厚度小于2km的H云对地面辐射通量的减少量最少（一32．9w／m。）。另外,用地面单点云辐射观测与中分辨率成像光谱仪MODIS（moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer）资料估计结果对比发现,两种资料有较大差异,差异可达-1．9～-36．9W／m。     

葵花8号卫星在暴雨对流云团监测中的应用分析

高时空分辨率的葵花8号卫星(简称H8卫星)2016年在我国得到应用,而该年是我国暴雨过程频繁、极端性强的一年,H8卫星到底在暴雨对流云团监测方面有何优势也是预报员所关心的。目前的业务中H8、FY-2卫星和雷达资料到达业务平台的平均延迟时间分别为15、35、6 min左右。本文利用H8卫星红外云图结合地面降水,在2016年汛期27次暴雨过程中每个过程选定一个主要的目标对流云团分析其初生情况,并与FY-2卫星和雷达探测的情况进行对比,结果表明:H8和FY-2卫星在同时刻云顶黑体亮温(TBB)观测数值上差别不大,时间变化趋势也基本一致,但H8卫星由于高频次观测的优势对暴雨对流强弱的变化刻画得更加细致,在监测暴雨对流云团方面具有明显时间上的优势,即H8卫星较FY-2卫星平均提前23 min发现对流云团,较雷达平均提前达33 min。通过结合地面小时和10 min降水量对2016年华北"7·20"极端暴雨过程进行分析,发现TBB与地面降水量之间有很好的反相关关系,同时降水量的变化幅度明显大于TBB的变化;当TBB峰值向低温一侧移动时,与之对应的地面降水量级也增大,降水逐渐转为冷云降水为主。     

台风“温比亚”影响山东期间GPM资料的降水分析

为研究GPM（Global Precipitation Measurement）资料对台风雨带降水结构的探测能力,利用GPM卫星资料、地基雷达资料和地面降水实况对2018 年第18号台风“温比亚”影响山东期间的降水结构进行分析。结果表明：台风螺旋雨带造成的降水远大于台风外围云系产生的降水;台风螺旋雨带的雨顶高度大于外围云系的雨顶高度,基本在7 km以上,最大雨顶高度达到15 km;台风螺旋雨带及其外围云系都以层云和对流云降水为主,其中螺旋雨带中对流云降水所占比例高于外围云系,对流云的平均降水率是层云的3倍左右,对流云降水对应近地面降水率和雨顶高度的大值区;台风螺旋雨带的降水柱与外围云系中的降水柱相比,具有数量多、密度大、高度高的特点,这与台风螺旋雨带中对流发展旺盛有关;2A DPR数据产品对降水估测具有较好的指示意义。研究结果为用GPM产品估测降水结构提供了参考依据。     

Vertical Structures of Convective and Stratiform Clouds in Boreal Summer over the Tibetan Plateau and Its Neighboring Regions

Cloud is essential in the atmosphere, condensing water vapor and generating strong convective or large-scale persistent precipitation. In this work, the relationships between cloud vertical macro- or microphysical properties, radiative heating rate, and precipitation for convective and stratiform clouds in boreal summer over the Tibetan Plateau (TP) are analyzed and compared with its neighboring land and tropical oceans based on CloudSat/CALIPSO satellite measurements and TRMM precipitation data. The precipitation intensity caused by convective clouds is twofold stronger than that by stratiform clouds. The vertical macrophysics of both cloud types show similar features over the TP, with the region weakening the precipitation intensity and compressing the cloud vertical expansion and variation in cloud top height, but having an uplift effect on the average cloud top height. The vertical microphysics of both cloud types under conditions of no rain over the TP are characterized by lower-level ice water, ice particles with a relatively larger range of sizes, and a relatively lower occurrence of denser ice particles. The features are similar to other regions when precipitation enhances, but convective clouds gather denser and larger ice particles than stratiform clouds over the TP. The atmospheric shortwave (longwave) heating (cooling) rate strengthens with increased precipitation for both cloud types. The longwave cooling layer is thicker when the rainfall rate is less than 100 mm d^?1, but the net heating layer is typically compressed for the profiles of both cloud types over the TP. This study provides insights into the associations between clouds and precipitation, and an observational basis for improving the simulation of convective and stratiform clouds over the TP in climate models.     

积云的清除作用与其酸化的数值模拟

一维时变参数化积云模式与污染物浓度连续方程相结合，根据积云内外SO2和HNO3浓度、云水S(VI)浓度、H2O2和O3的氧化速率以及地面雨水S(VI)浓度的时空变化，分别讨论核化清除、液相氧化、云下气溶胶清除、碱性气溶胶、云外污染物的夹卷以及SO2初始分布等因子的重要性。     

辽宁农村代表区域降水离子组成及与气态污染物相关性

对辽宁农村代表区域站点辽中县马龙村观测站2007年2月至2008年1月酸雨、气态污染物浓度观测资料进行了分析。结果表明：辽中观测站降水的化学组成阴离子主要为SO₄^2-和NO₃^-,阳离子主要是NH^₄+和Ca₂⁺, SO^₄2-/ NO₃^-比值为2.9, Na⁺/Cl^-比值较大,大于1。各种离子浓度冬春季高,夏秋季较低,表明研究区域降水酸化与污染关系不显著。实测的9种主要阴离子、阳离子总浓度比（∑阴离子/∑阳离子）与降水pH值相关性不高,表明目前酸雨研究观测的主要9种阴阳离子不能完全包括降水中的离子组成。降水酸性与近地面污染气体浓度相关各异,pH与NO_x、CO、NO₂和O₃浓度有比较明显的负相关,与SO₂浓度负相关不明显;降水pH值与颗粒物等碱性污染物浓度正相关明显。降水中主要致酸离子SO₄^2-和NO₃^-的浓度与相应酸性气体污染物SO2和NOx近地面浓度的相关不明显。     

对流涡度矢量和湿涡度矢量在暴雨诊断分析中的应用研究

利用对流涡度矢量(CVV, (ζa×θe)/ρ)和湿涡度矢量(MVV, (ζa×θv)/ρ)对华北地区一次大范围的大到暴雨天气过程进行了诊断研究.结果表明,CVV和MVV垂直分量与云和降水密切相关,暴雨区区域平均和垂直积分的CVV和MVV垂直分量与云中水凝物混合比的相关系数分别为0.92和0.95,与降水率的相关系数分别为0.71和0.47.云中水凝物分为液态水凝物和固态水凝物,虽然同态水凝物的含量相对较少,但它在云的变化中起着更重要的作用.滞后相关分析表明,降水率的峰值到来之前4-5 h云中水凝物含晕最少,降水率的峰值到来之后1-2 h,云中水凝物含量最多.云中水凝物与降水率的滞后相关系数主要是由液态水凝物与降水率的滞后相关系数决定的,只有约1/4的滞后相关系数是由固态水凝物与降水率的滞后相关系数贡献的.CVV和MVV的垂直分量与云中水凝物具有非常好的相关性(同时及滞后),与降水率的相关也较好,可以代表云和对流系统的发展.CVV和MVV垂直分量的局地变化超前降水率3 h左右,可以作为降水发生的先兆,对降水的预报有潜在的意义.CVV垂直分量的局地变化与降水率的相关系数大于MVV垂直分量的局地变化与降水率的相关系数,因此在实际预报中可以利用CVV垂直分量的局地变化来估计未来降水的变化.     

上海地区几类强降水雨滴谱特征分析

用Parsivel激光降水粒子谱仪资料对2013年上海地区4—10月份期间4种类型 (层状云、对流暖云主导型、对流冷云主导型和强台风影响下的混合暖云型) 降水过程的雨滴谱特征进行了分析。通过平均雨滴谱及其拟合特征、雨滴数密度与含水量分布、雨滴尺度与速度二维谱分布等对比分析发现:各类降水中, 雨滴谱的峰值结构与雨强大小有关, 其中直径介于0.187~1.312 mm的小雨滴均出现峰值且总数最多。各尺度雨滴数密度及其比例决定了其降水量贡献比, 在冷云强降水中的雨强贡献最大的雨滴尺度要显著大于其他3种类型。雨滴谱宽按大小排列依次为对流冷云主导型、混合暖云型、对流暖云主导型和层状云。最后综合运用雨滴谱、雷达、雨量站、闪电等观测资料对9月13日对流冷云主导型降水过程进行分析后发现:在雷暴的演变过程中, 雨滴谱特征与雷达反射率因子、垂直液态水含量、自动站雨强、闪电频次等要素均有较好的相关性。冷云产生的冰晶和冰雹融化后的大雨滴进入中低层的广谱小雨滴群, 并通过破碎分裂增加了大雨滴的形成概率, 尤其是捕捉碰并过程更加快了大雨滴的增长速度, 使雨强在短时间内迅速加强。雨滴谱中各档粒子数的演变, 揭示了降水强度的变化, 用雨滴谱资料可有效弥补现有雷达定量估测降水的偏差, 且在冷云中改善明显。     

GATE A/B‐scale budget analysis

Abstract

Using GATE A/B‐scale U.S.S.R. ship data, heat and moisture budget analyses have been carried out for the three‐day period: 0000 GMT, 7 September to 2400 GMT, 9 September, 1974. The period has been subdivided into an undisturbed period (0000 GMT, 7 September ‐1800 GMT, 8 September) and a disturbed period (1800 GMT, 8 September ‐ 2400 GMT, 9 September) based on surface precipitation and satellite cloud observations. During the undisturbed period, precipitation was very light (1–3 mm day^‐1). On the other hand, the precipitation rate became well over 10 mm day^‐1 during the disturbed period. A/B‐scale heat and moisture budget results for both periods are presented.

It is found that during the undisturbed period, cumulus clouds have heating and moistening effects in the lower troposphere below 700 mb, and cooling and moistening effects in the upper troposphere above 600mb. In the disturbed period, clouds have strong heating and drying effects throughout the entire cloud layer.

Using the diagnostic scheme developed by Cho (1977), the collective properties of cumulus clouds for both the undisturbed and the disturbed periods are also determined. During the undisturbed period, some clouds reached as high as the 300‐mb level, however, little precipitation was produced. The total cloud mass flux is found to be negative in the upper troposphere and can be attributed to downdrafts induced by the evaporation of cloud liquid water. On the other hand, total cloud mass flux for the disturbed period is positive throughout the entire troposphere.     

中国及周边海域对流云团的水平和垂直尺度

利用2007年1月-2010年12月CloudSat-CALIPSO二级云产品2B-CLDCLASS-LIDAR,统计中国及其周边海域对流云的发生频率,根据对流云发生频率的分布特征将中国及周边海域划分为青藏高原（TP）、东部陆地（EC）、南部海域（SO）和西北太平洋（WP）4个子区域,并研究了4个子区域积云团和深对流云团的水平尺度和垂直尺度。统计结果表明,海洋积云团的水平尺度约为2 km,陆地积云团的水平尺度约为1 km,海洋下垫面热力性质均匀,积云团尺度更大;陆地下垫面非均匀性强,积云团分布更为零散。深对流云团的水平尺度为10-50 km,东部陆地最大,约为45 km,西北太平洋最小,约为30 km。陆地深对流云团水平尺度较海洋上大,且多尺度特征显著,应该与深对流云发生的复杂天气背景有关。积云团的垂直尺度范围为0.24-2 km,4个区域无明显差异。垂直尺度海洋深对流云团大于陆地云团,其中在南部海域地区最大,约为15 km,青藏高原最小,约为10 km。与陆地云团相比,海洋深对流云团表现为水平尺度更小、垂直尺度更大的中尺度对流体特征。      

西太平洋区域二甲硫酸及其他硫化物的模拟研究

本文利用一维光化学模式，以二甲硫醚（ＤｉｍｅｔｈｙｌＳｕｌｆｉｄｅ，简称ＤＭＳ）为源模拟了西太平洋对流层的硫化物循环。ＤＭＳ海－气通量由“ｓｔａｇｎａｎｔ－ｆｉｌｍ”模式进行计算。尽管海洋大气中ＯＣＳ浓度比ＤＭＳ大一个量级，但它对ＳＯ２的贡献很小，ＤＭＳ仍是海洋大气中ＳＯ２的主要源。在大气垂直湍流输送过程中，ＤＭＳ白天与ＯＨ反应，夜间与ＮＯ３反应被氧化成ＳＯ２，ＳＯ２大部分通过非均相转化形成Ｈ２ＳＯ４。模拟结果与ＰＥＭ－ＷＥＳＴ－Ａ观测资料对比，取得了较好的一致性。     

Precipitation responses to radiative effects of ice clouds: A cloud-resolving modeling study of a pre-summer torrential precipitation event

The precipitation responses to the radiative effects of ice clouds are investigated through analysis of five-day and horizontally averaged data from 2D cumulus ensemble model experiments of a pre-summer torrential precipitation event. The exclusion of the radiative effects of ice clouds lowered the precipitation rate through a substantial reduction in the decrease of hydrometeors when the radiative effects of water clouds were switched on, whereas it increased the precipitation rate through hydrometeor change from an increase to a decrease when the radiative effects of ice clouds were turned off. The weakened hydrometeor decrease was associated with the enhanced longwave radiative cooling mainly through the decreases in the melting of non-precipitating ice to non-precipitating water. The hydrometeor change from an increase to a decrease corresponded to the strengthened longwave radiative cooling in the upper troposphere through the weakened collection of non-precipitating water by precipitation water.     

锋面云系降水中的增雨潜力数值研究

采用中尺度模式MM5模拟研究2002年4月4～5日出现在河南省境内的一次冷锋云系宏观和微观结构特征、云系降水机制以及区域内水分循环收支、"拟降水效率"与云系增雨潜力.模拟结果显示,这次大范围冷锋降水云系分层、非均匀性结构明显,高层主要由冰相粒子构成,中层是冰-水混合层,低层为液水层.云系内同时存在较强的冷、暖云过程,低层和中层首先由暖云过程生成大量云水,而高层冰晶出现后不断向雪转化,大量的冰雪晶由高层降落至中层高云水含量区,促使雨水大量产生,云系存在明显的"播种-供给"云降水机制.此外,模拟显示云系降水主     

Characteristics of Gaseous Pollutants at a Regional Background Station in Southern China

Measurements of gaseous pollutants （03, NOx, SO2, and CO） were conducted at Dinghushan background station in southern China from January to December 2013. The levels and variations of O3, NOx, SO2, and CO were analyzed and their possible causes discussed. The annual average concentrations of 03, NOx, SO2, and CO were 24.6 ± 23.9, 12.8 ± 10.2, 4.0 ± 4.8, and 348 ± 185 ppbv, respectively. The observed levels of the gaseous pollutants are comparable to those at other background sites in China. The most obvious diurnal variation of 03 was observed in autumn, with minima in the early morning and maxima in the afternoon. The diurnal variations of SO2 showed high values during the day. The diurnal cycles of NOx showed higher values in the morning and lower values during the night. Higher CO concentrations were observed in spring followed by winter, autumn, and summer. Biomass burning, in combination with the transport of regional pollution, is an important source of CO, SO2, and NOx in spring and winter. Backward trajectories were calculated and analyzed together with corresponding pollutant concentrations. The results indicate that air masses passing over polluted areas are responsible for the high concentrations of gaseous pollutants at the Dinghushan background station.     

一维辐射-对流模式对云辐射强迫的数值模拟研究

利用一维辐射－对流气候模式, 详细研究了云量、云光学厚度以及云高等要素的变化对大气顶和地面太阳短波辐射和红外长波辐射通量以及云的辐射强迫的影响, 给出了计算这些物理量的经验拟合公式。结果表明, 云具有极为重要的辐射－气候效应。云量、云光学厚度以及云高即使只有百分之几的变化, 所带来的辐射强迫也可以与大气二氧化碳浓度加倍所产生的辐射强迫（3.75 W/m2）相比拟。例如, 当分别给它们+3%的扰动时, 即取云量变化0.015, 云光学厚度变化0.27, 以及云高变化0.15 km时（在实际的地球大气中, 这种尺度的变化是完全可能发生的）, 那么,可以得到地气系统的太阳短波辐射强迫-3.10 W/m2以及红外长波辐射强迫-1.77 W/m2, 二者之和为-4.78 W/m2, 已经完全可以抵消大气二氧化碳浓度加倍所产生的辐射强迫。但是, 当云量、云光学厚度以及云高向相反方向产生类似扰动时, 所产生的辐射强迫可能极大地放大二氧化碳浓度增加所产生的增强温室效应。因此, 研究结果揭示出, 不管是为了解释过去的气候变化, 还是预测未来的气候变化, 亟待加强在一个变化了的气候环境（例如地面温度升高）下, 云将发生何种变化的研究。