Reconstructing ancient topography through erosion modelling

One of the main aims of geomorphology is to understand how geomorphic processes change topography over long time scales. Over the last decades several landscape evolution models have been developed in order to study this question. However, evaluation of such models has often been very limited due to the lack of necessary field data. In this study we present a topography based hillslope erosion and deposition model that is based on the WATEM/SEDEM model structure and works on a millennial time scale. Soil erosion, transport and deposition are calculated using slope and unit contributing area. The topography is iteratively rejuvenated by taking into account modelled erosion and deposition rates, thereby simulating topographic development backwards in time. A first attempt has been made to spatially evaluate the model, using detailed estimates for historical soil erosion and sediment deposition volumes, obtained from an augering campaign in a small catchment in the Belgian Loess Belt. The results show that the model can simulate realistic soil redistribution patterns. However, further research is necessary in order to deal with artificial flaws that cause routing problems and significantly influence results. Common problems and issues related to this type of backward modelling are also discussed.     

Modelling the links between vegetation and landforms

Vegetation is the most important intermediate through which climate and land use modify geomorphological processes and landforms. In this paper we explore three types of model which attempt to simulate the links to uncultivated vegetation, all sharing a common basis in hydrology. The first simulates the relationship between climate, vegetation and erosion rates for a fixed topography and soil cover. The second group of models takes into account longer term interactions with soil properties, which are thought to be important on the times scales of current concern with global change. An expanded illustration of this interaction is the relationship between wash erosion processes, vegetation cover and the evolution of microtopography. The third group of models looks at geological time spans, for which consistent differences in vegetation and landform between climatic areas create responses in the pattern of erosion rates, jointly to a combination of past and present climates.     

Climatic influences on Holocene variations in soil erosion rates on a small hill in the Mojave Desert

A detailed study of a small hill in NE Mojave Desert in eastern California was conducted to elucidate the effect of climate on the variations in soil erosion rates through Holocene. Field surveys and sampling were carried out to obtain information on topography, geomorphology, soil and vegetation conditions, seismic refraction, sediment deposition, and hillslope processes. Integration of this information allowed reconstruction of the hill topography at the end of the Pleistocene, deduction of the evolution of the hill from the end of the Pleistocene to the present, and estimation of total soil losses resulting from various hillslope processes. The estimates are consistent with the premise that early Holocene climate change resulted in vegetation change, soil destabilization, and topographic roughening. Current, very slow, hillslope transport rates (e.g., 5 mm ky⁻¹ by rodent burrowing, a presently important transport form) appear inconsistent with the inferred total soil loss rate (31 mm ky⁻¹). Packrat midden studies imply that the NE Mojave Desert experienced enhanced monsoonal precipitation in the early Holocene, presumably accentuating soil loss. Water erosion on one slope of the hill was simulated using Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP), a process-based erosion model, using 4 and 6 ky of precipitation input compatible with an appropriate monsoonal climate and the present climate, respectively. The WEPP-predicted soil losses for the chosen slope were compatible with inferred soil losses. Identification of two time periods within the Holocene with distinct erosion characteristics may provide new insight into the current state of Mojave Desert landform evolution.     

南极中山站附近海域水深地形特征

南极普里兹湾是我国南极中山站建站的重要依托海域 ,是科考船前往中山站进出的必由之路。本文根据普里兹湾近岸的中山站附近海域概略水深 ,研究分析了地形基本概况 ,崎岖不平的中山站近海湾部水下地形 ,沿其湾顶部轴线SN向形成了一条绵延弯曲的水深达 80 0m以浅的海底峡谷 ,通往冰盖底部。峡谷两侧地形复杂 ,水下丘岭嶙峋。从冰盖沿峡谷崩裂下来的冰山 ,最终依其适宜的水深 ,绕过地形障碍 ,沿海底峡谷西侧随风和流往西离去。除中山锚地抛锚区域属于浅水低洼的平缓台地外 ,湾内其它水域可供科考船抛锚的优越水下地形极少     

Modelling Spatial Patterns of Overbank Sedimentation on Embanked Floodplains

This paper presents a GIS-based mathematical model for the simulation of floodplain sedimentation. The model comprises two components: (1) the existing hydrodynamic WAQUA model that calculates two-dimensional water flow patterns; and (2) the SEDIFLUX model that calculates deposition of sediment based on a simple mass balance concept with a limited number of model parameters. The models were applied to simulate floodplain sediment deposition over river reaches of several kilometres in length. The SEDIFLUX model has been calibrated and validated using interpolated raster maps of sediment deposition observed after the large magnitude December 1993 flood on the embanked floodplain of the lower river Rhine in the Netherlands. The model appeared to be an adequate tool to predict patterns of sediment deposition as the product of the complex interaction among river discharge and sediment concentration, floodplain topography, and the resulting water flow patterns during various discharge levels. In the investigated areas, the resulting annual average sedimentation rates varied between 0.5 mm/year and 4.0 mm/year. The role of the most important mechanisms governing the spatial patterns of overbank deposition, i.e. inundation frequency, sediment load, floodplain topography and its influence on the flow patterns over the floodplain, are discussed.     

40年来长江九江河段河道演变及其趋势预测

利用地理信息系统(GIS)与数字高程模型(DEM)技术定量模拟40年来九江河段冲淤演变过程,结果表明: 1963~1972年总体表现为淤积,淤积量为6.505 hm³,平均淤积速率为0.65 hm³/a。1972~2002年总体表现为冲刷,冲刷量为20.720 hm³,平均年冲刷率为1.036 hm³/a。1963~2002年九江河床总体表现为冲刷,冲刷量为14.977 hm³。2003年与1963年比较,河床淤积区域主要分布在九江河道上段近南岸区域,中下段河道的中间区域;冲刷区域主要分布在九江河道上段的中间及近北岸区域,中下段河道两岸的近岸区域。中下段南岸的不断刷深和南偏对九江的防洪带来更大的压力。     

大河三角洲河口海岸演化机理模型研究:(I)模式理论与进展

从水沙通量变化对大河三角洲河口海岸建造及地貌演化的影响机理角度,通过研究目前国际上普遍采用的统计模型、几何模型、沉积动力学模型,以及数值模拟模型四种方法在建立大河三角洲河口海岸演化机理模型研究中的各自特点和不足,提出了建立宏观尺度机理模型的初步设想,并对运用Lagrange余流建立海岸演化机理模型所涉及的余流场的尺度转换、总余流场的建立和表达、用长期余流场构建泥沙起动、输运和沉积条件模式以及一线模型与三维动力模式耦合等关键性问题,提出了初步解决方案     

新疆策勒沙漠-绿洲过渡带不同下垫面地表蚀积变化特征

沙漠-绿洲过渡带天然植被具有良好的防风阻沙效益,对绿洲内部农田起到重要生态保护作用。在新疆策勒沙漠-绿洲过渡带流沙地、半固定沙地、绿洲边缘固定沙地6个不同植被覆盖度样地风蚀、风积变化观测基础上,结合地表风速数据,探讨流沙地、半固定沙地、固定沙地不同植被覆盖度和地形下地表风蚀风积变化特征及其影响因素。结果表明：流沙地表现出较强烈的地表风蚀;半固定沙地整体表现出强烈的地表风积;固定沙地上植被覆盖度越高、植株越高和排列方式越均匀、整体地势越低,单位面积风积量也就越大、风蚀量越小,风蚀主要发生在灌丛沙堆的上风向、侧翼、背风风向的裸低凹沙地表面,较高沙堆侧翼的地表风蚀量最大。植被覆盖度与单位面积风蚀量呈多项式或指数函数关系递减,植被覆盖度与单位面积风积量不呈函数分布,说明除了植被覆盖度外,植株类型、高度、排列方式、地形等都会对地表风积量产生一定影响。     

中国干旱区土地沙砾化过程的空气流压场分析

在野外调查和资料分析的基础上,应用空气流压场原理,矢量分析法,分析了我国干旱地区不同地貌类型分区的土地沙砾化过程,及其所导致的风蚀,风积地形的分布规律,高山地区,风蚀风积地形从山顶到山木麓呈带状分布,在平坦地区,随气流强弱,扰动,就地就近起沙,形成了低缓沙丘,河湖淤泥平原,土地干裂迭加风力,形成了残丘雅丹地形,在丘陵地区的迎风坡为土地砾化,背风坡为沙化。     

High rates of geomorphological processes in a tropical area: the Remparts River case study (Réunion Island, Indian Ocean)

Reunion Island is characterized by rapid landscape evolution resulting from its cyclonic tropical climate. However, local active surface processes are not well understood. The relationships between climatic events, large scale landslides and torrential transport of sediment by the rivers remain unclear. The Remparts River is an appropriate area for studying such geomorphological processes, as it deeply incises the active Piton de la Fournaise volcano. In this study, different approaches are used to analyze the morphological evolution of the river from the sediment production areas to the outlet over the last 40 years. Recurrent events of huge mass wasting occur at Mahavel Cliff, upstream of one of the river tributaries, the most recent producing around 50×10⁶ m³ of sediment in 1965. Combined analyses of the sequence of cyclonic events, major mass wasting events and aerial photography interpretation over the last 40 years led to the proposal of a functional model of river system responses to these events. The river system can be divided into three compartments, each affected by three classes of geomorphological events. The sedimentary response (erosion and/or aggradation) of each compartment to a triggering event, such as cyclonic rainfall and/or seasonal rise of water discharge, is controlled both by the magnitude of the climatic event and by the state of the compartment resulting from previous evolution. A set of five aerial photographs and a satellite image showing the evolution of the studied area during the last 40 years are examined in detail in the light of the functional model. Observations confirm a rapid and complex evolution of the river bed (erosion and aggradation), and provide information about the dynamics of the sediment transfer from the production areas to the ocean. Analysis of two distinct topographic datasets bracketing the last major cyclone Dina in 2002 allows the estimation of the river sediment budget resulting from this event. The net volume of aggraded sediments in the river bed is estimated at around 8×10⁶ m³.With no major collapse event recorded at Mahavel Cliff, sediment transfer due to the flood associated with the 3-day cyclone Dina event is responsible for this significant increase in river bed sediment volume. This quantification shows that several million cubic meters of sediment may take only a few years to spread over more than 5 km downstream. The river bed has now reached its highest elevation since the 1965 landslide, with potential consequences for natural hazards in the area of the outlet at the city of Saint-Joseph.     

土壤风力侵蚀研究现状与进展

土壤风蚀实质上是土壤颗粒在风力作用下发生位移的自然过程,它包含了土壤夹带起沙、空间输移及沉降淀积等三个阶段。风蚀研究的根本任务是对土壤风蚀的范围、强度及数量进行监测、评价以及预测预报。为此,科学家在断面尺度、地块(图斑)尺度以及区域尺度上,以年、月、日、小时等时间尺度展开了研究。当前的风蚀研究主要有以下四个方向:实验室和野外风洞实验研究、野外观测与网络监测、风蚀评价以及风蚀估算与过程模拟研究等。实验室和野外风洞实验有助于人们深入理解风蚀的基本过程;而网络监测数据对于实现风蚀研究从局部到整体的尺度转换具有重要意义;在风蚀评价方面,对风蚀发源地的风蚀评价研究卓有成效,但针对风蚀物运移过程及沉降过程的研究成果还不多见;在风蚀估算和过程模拟方面,一些模型或应用系统已经在不同的区域以不同的时空尺度取得良好的效果,但是要将这些模型和系统在不同的时空尺度上做进一步推广还有许多工作要做。遥感和GIS等现代地理信息技术在区域尺度的风蚀研究中有着显著的优势,并贯穿了风蚀研究的全过程。     

Low-Level Westerly Winds,Topography, and Tropical Cyclogenesis of Arlene (2005): Observations and Model Simulations

The evolution process of the low-level westerly winds over the eastern North Pacific is investigated to understand the tropical cyclogenesis (TCG) of Tropical Storm Arlene (2005) over the Intra-Americas Sea (IAS). Also considered are the influences of the topography of the Central American mountain region interacting with the low-level westerly winds on Arlene's TCG by comparing results from a modified-topography simulation of Arlene's TCG with those from a simulation with the original topography in the Weather Research and Forecast (WRF) model. Interactions among large-scale circulations associated with subtropical highs in both hemispheres and an anticyclone over the warm eastern North Pacific produced low-level westerly winds into the IAS. WRF model experiments with a virtually elevated terrain filling in mountain passes in Central America resulted in the delayed and suppressed development of the incipient storm. The model experiments suggest that the low-level winds and moisture fluxes from the eastern North Pacific passing through the low-level mountain passes in Central America could play a critical role in the TCG process and perhaps also sustenance of storms over the western Caribbean.     

呼伦贝尔沙质草原风蚀坑研究（1）——形态、分类、研究意义

采用野外调查和测量、航片判读、室内制图、统计分析等方法对呼伦贝尔沙质草原典型地带的风蚀坑及坑后风沙沉积进行了研究。发现:①风蚀坑是由一个沙坑和坑后沙丘共同组成,两者具有一一对应关系;②风蚀坑和坑后沙丘可以根据形态特征、发展阶段、诱发原因进行分类;③呼伦贝尔三大沙带均由风蚀坑洼地及其坑后沙丘和背景沙质草原组成;④沙质草原风蚀坑的发生与人类活动关系密切,为气候干旱化与人类大范围强度活动干扰土层相耦合的环境事件所造成。该研究对沙质草原沙漠发生学,沙质草原地貌演化和沙漠化监测研究具有科学意义,对草原合理利用和沙漠化防治具有现实意义。     

A sapping erosion susceptibility model for the southern Cantabrian Range, North Spain

A susceptibility model of sapping-related depressions has been produced by analysing the statistical relationship between the location of depressions and topographical variables. Sapping erosion plays an important role in the growth of gullies developed over poorly-consolidated quartzite conglomerates in the northern sector of the Duero Tertiary Basin (the Cantabrian Mountain Range of Spain). Gullies, topsoil subsidence depressions related to sapping processes, and shallow slides have been identified over sandy soils in an area of 37 km². This area underwent major changes in land use during the 20th century, leading to the expansion of gully erosion processes. On the surface, depressions of several meters in diameter, caused by internal erosion related to sapping processes, can be identified. Using the topographical location of these topsoil depressions and several topographical variables, 14 discriminate functions were derived to provide information about the influence of topography on the development of sapping erosion processes. The functions have accuracy levels varying from 56 to 81%. The most accurate function was regionalized by means of a Geographical Information System and was used to complete a land classification method which is based on the Mahalanobis distance to the multivariate average (centroid) of a sapping erosion form group. The classification of this model allows the identification of areas with different relative probabilities of sapping processes and the resultant growth of gullies.     

基于优化GeoCA模型的土壤侵蚀时空变化模拟——以福建省长汀县为例

土壤侵蚀动态监测是侵蚀研究体系中的重要内容, 目前研究主要集中在强度评价以及趋势预测两方面, 其中, 地理元胞自动机(Geo-Cellular Automata, GeoCA)是最常用的土壤侵蚀趋势模拟模型, 但是现有研究主要基于邻域计算规则, 强度模型的数学意义, 而忽视了元胞自身发生变化的可能性, 不能完全体现土壤侵蚀演变的复杂性, 这些问题不仅降低了模拟的精度, 而且使得趋势预测与侵蚀评价两者间的融合性降低, 不利于完整的研究体系形成。本研究认为土壤侵蚀时空变化趋势是其自身侵蚀状态、自然条件以及邻域转换规则共同作用决定, 从而设计元胞侵蚀强度指数算法、元胞侵蚀强度函数以及元胞邻域转换函数, 对传统GeoCA进行了优化, 并在GIS与遥感技术支撑下, 以福建省长汀县为研究区, 设计了上述算法的整合模型, 对福建省长汀县30 年来土壤侵蚀时空演替过程进行了测算与分析。研究结果显示: 长汀县土壤侵蚀最严重的地区主要分布在以河田镇为中心的汀中地区, 20 世纪90 年代以来, 土壤侵蚀治理工作成效显著, 改善趋势明显加快, 至2000 年以后有所放缓。预计至2020 年, 土壤侵蚀区的比重将从1990 年的约40%下降至约20%。通过比较, 整合算法的精度达到72.7%, 高于单纯的侵蚀强度评价算法以及传统GeoCA模型, 证明优化GeoCA不仅是进行土壤侵蚀时空演变模拟研究的有效手段, 更为土壤侵蚀这一复杂地理系统的元胞表述规则研究进一步深入提供了思路。     

Morphotectonics and incision of the Kaoping submarine canyon, SW Taiwan orogenic wedge

The Kaoping submarine canyon developed on the frontal orogenic wedge off SW Taiwan and is the largest one among others. The canyon begins at the mouth of the Kaoping River, crosses the narrow shelf and broad slope region, and finally merges into the northern Manila Trench for a distance of about 260 km. Using reflection seismic sections and bathymetric mapping this paper reveals the geomorphic characteristics of the Kaoping Canyon strongly related to structural and sedimentary processes. The combined morphometry statistics analysis, seismic interpretations of structures and examinations of detailed bathymetric charts indicate that regional canyon morphology is strongly linked to intrusions of mud diapirs in the upper reach of the canyon and thrust faulting in the middle and lower reaches which produce two prominent morphological breaks of the course of the Kaoping Canyon with two sharp bends. Although excavation of floor and enlargement of the Kaoping Canyon are mainly attributed to downslope erosion of seabed, incision of this canyon is also strongly complicated by mud diapiric intrusions (upper reach), westward thrust faults (middle reach), and regional base level tilting (lower reach). The resultant cross-sectional morphology along the Kaoping Canyon changes considerably, ranging from U-shaped, broad V-shaped, to irregular troughs. The Kaoping Canyon may be served as a variant of canyon model of active margins with a distinct morphology of two sharp bends along the canyon course associated with structure deformation.     

Medium-term evolution of a gully developed in a loess-derived soil

Field surveys in the Belgian loess belt revealed the presence in many forested areas of large, permanent gully systems, most of which are currently inactive. In cultivated areas, such gullies can only be observed in cross-sectional soil profiles through hollows, as virtually all such large gullies are currently infilled with colluvium. Little is known about the spatial distribution, initiation and temporal evolution of these large, permanent gully systems on loess-derived soils. Therefore, the medium-term evolution of a gully initiated in a cultivated area on loess-derived soils southwest of Leuven (Belgium) in May–June 1986, was studied over 13 years. Two intense rainfall events created this (ephemeral) gully, which was not erased by subsequent tillage. Between June 1986 and the December 1999, eight field surveys were conducted to measure gully dimensions. During two surveys, topographic indices (e.g., slope and drainage area) were also measured. Daily rainfall for the measuring period were obtained from a rainfall station located some 10 km southwest of the gully. Analysis of rainfall data showed that no extreme rainfall event was required to initiate such large (permanent) gullies, as observed in forested areas and through cross-sectional profiles in cultivated fields in the Belgian loess belt. Return periods of the event that caused the gully varied between <1 year and 25 years, depending on the assumptions used for defining event rain intensity. Once established, length, surface area and volume of the studied gully evolved with time, cumulative rainfall or cumulative runoff, following a negative exponential relation. This accords with observations reported for gullies in Australia and the USA. This study shows that a degressive increase of gully extension, can be largely explained by the evolution of a “slope–drainage area” factor (S×A, which is proportional to stream power) with time. While gully length and gully surface area asymptotically evolve towards a final value, gully volume decreased at a given point in time. From this, it is inferred that sediment deposition will potentially infill the gully to such an extent that the farmer can drive across it. From this moment on, the combined effect of water and tillage erosion in the gully drainage area, will lead towards rapid infilling. This expected evolution of a gully in cultivated fields accords with observations of large infilled gully systems in cultivated areas in eastern Belgium. The permanent gullies observed under forest are attributed to the fact that after severe gully erosion, this area was reforested or abandoned. Therefore, the sediment source was cut off and the gully was not filled in by sediment deposition.     

Response of unconfined turbidity current to relay‐ramp topography: insights from process‐based numerical modelling

This natural‐scale experimental study combines structural modelling of soft‐linked normal‐fault relays with a CFD (computational fluid dynamics) numerical simulation of a range of unconfined turbidity currents overrunning the relay‐system topography. The flow, released from an upslope inlet gate 2000‐m wide and 50‐m to 100‐m high, rapidly expands and adjusts its thickness, velocity and sediment load to the substrate slope of 1.5°. A lower initial sediment concentration or smaller thickness renders the quasi‐steady flow slower and its sediment‐transport capacity lower. A 3D pattern of large interfering Kelvin‐Helmholtz waves causes fluctuations of the local flow velocity magnitude and sediment concentration. Four zones of preferential sediment deposition are recognized: a near‐gate zone of abrupt flow expansion and self‐regulation; a flow‐transverse zone on the counter‐slope of fault footwall edges; a flow‐transverse zone at the fault‐scarp toes and a similar transverse zone near the crest of the hanging wall counter‐slopes. The sand deposited on the counter‐slope tends to be re‐entrained and fed back to the current by a secondary reverse underflow. The spatial extent and sediment accumulation capacity of depozones depend upon the released current volume. The impact of relay system on an overrunning current depends upon the fault separation distance and stage of tectonic evolution. An early‐stage relay system, with small vertical displacement and little overlap of faults, is bypassed by the current with minimum flow disturbance and no pronounced deposition. An advanced‐stage system, with greater fault displacement and overlap, gives a similar hydraulic effect as a single fault segment if the fault separation is small. If the separation is relatively large, the flow tends to be internally redirected sideways from the ramp into the hanging wall synclinal depressions. Since normal‐fault relays are common features in extensional basins, the study bears important implications for turbiditic slope‐fan models and for the spatial sand prediction in subsurface exploration of faulted submarine slopes.     

Embedding reach-scale fluvial dynamics within the CAESAR cellular automaton landscape evolution model

We introduce a new computational model designed to simulate and investigate reach-scale alluvial dynamics within a landscape evolution model. The model is based on the cellular automaton concept, whereby the continued iteration of a series of local process ‘rules’ governs the behaviour of the entire system. The model is a modified version of the CAESAR landscape evolution model, which applies a suite of physically based rules to simulate the entrainment, transport and deposition of sediments. The CAESAR model has been altered to improve the representation of hydraulic and geomorphic processes in an alluvial environment. In-channel and overbank flow, sediment entrainment and deposition, suspended load and bed load transport, lateral erosion and bank failure have all been represented as local cellular automaton rules. Although these rules are relatively simple and straightforward, their combined and repeatedly iterated effect is such that complex, non-linear geomorphological response can be simulated within the model. Examples of such larger-scale, emergent responses include channel incision and aggradation, terrace formation, channel migration and river meandering, formation of meander cutoffs, and transitions between braided and single-thread channel patterns. In the current study, the model is illustrated on a reach of the River Teifi, near Lampeter, Wales, UK.     

Methodological sensitivity of morphometric estimates of coarse fluvial sediment transport

The estimation of fluvial sediment transport rate from measurements of morphological change has received growing recent interest. The revival of the ‘morphological method’ reflects continuing concern over traditional methods of rate determination but also the availability of new survey methods capable of high-precision, high-resolution topographic monitoring. Remote sensing of river channels through aerial digital photogrammetry is a potentially attractive alternative to labour intensive ground surveys. However, while photogrammetry presents the opportunity to acquire survey data over large areas, data precision and accuracy, particularly in the vertical dimension are lower than in traditional ground survey methods. This paper presents results of recent research in which digital elevation models (DEMs) have been developed for a reach of a large braided gravel-bed river in Scotland using both digital photogrammetry and high-resolution RTK GPS ground surveys. A statistical level of change detection is assessed by comparing surfaces with independent check points. The methodological sensitivity of the annual channel sediment budget (1999–2000) to the threshold is presented. Results suggest that while the remote survey methods employed here can be used to develop qualitatively convincing, moderate precision DEMs of channel topography (RMSE=±0.21 m), the remaining errors imply significant limits on reliable change detection which lead to important information losses. Tests at a 95% confidence interval for change detection show that over 60% of channel deposition and 40% of erosion may be obscured by the lower level of precision associated with photogrammetric monitoring when compared to ground survey measurements. This bias reflects the difficulty of detecting the topographic signature of widespread, but shallow deposition on bar tops.