Characterising deep vadose zone water movement and solute transport under typical irrigated cropland in the North China Plain

Understanding the dynamics and mechanisms of soil water movement and solute transport is essential for accurately estimating recharge rates and evaluating the impacts of agricultural activities on groundwater resources. In a thick vadose zone (0–15 m) under irrigated cropland in the piedmont region of the North China Plain, soil water content, matric potential, and solute concentrations were measured. Based on these data, the dynamics of soil water and solutes were analysed to investigate the mechanisms of soil water and solute transport. The study showed that the 0–15‐m vadose zone can be divided into three layers: an infiltration and evaporation layer (0–2 m), an unsteady infiltration layer (2–6 m), and a quasi‐steady infiltration layer (6–15 m). The chloride, nitrate, and sulphate concentrations all showed greater variations in the upper soil layer (0–1 m) compared to values in the deep vadose zone (below 2 m). The average concentrations of these three anions in the deep vadose zone varied insignificantly with depth and approached values of 125, 242, and 116 mg/L. The accumulated chloride, sulphate, and nitrate were 2,179 ± 113, 1,760 ± 383, and 4,074 ± 421 kg/ha, respectively. The soil water potential and solute concentrations indicated that uniform flow and preferential flow both occurred in the deep vadose zone, and uniform flow was the dominant mechanism of soil water movement in this study. The piston‐like flow velocity of solute transport was 1.14 m per year, and the average value of calculated leached nitrate nitrogen was 107 kg/ha?year below the root zone. The results can be used to better understand recharge processes and improve groundwater resources management.     

Interactions between perched and saprolite aquifers on a small,salt-affected and deeply weathered hillslope

A small hillslope was chosen to investigate the role of throughflow as a mechanism responsible for the movement of soil water and solutes towards a saline seep and as a source of recharge to a permanent, regional aquifer at depth. The hydraulic properties, chemical characteristics and physical responses of both systems were studied on a deeply weathered, salt-affected hillslope. Additional data were also obtained from other sites in south-western Australia. Regional groundwater flow occurred in a variably textured, deeply weathered material in which the hydraulic conductivity varied from < 0·001 to 0·14m day^?1. Perched groundwater flow (throughflow) occurred in the higher permeability (? 1·5 m day^?1), near-surface soil materials. Throughflow occurred throughout winter, contributing approximately 530 m³ of fresh (? 160 mg l^?1 Cl) water to a saline seep. By contrast, the deep aquifer discharged approximately 1100 m³ of waters with salt concentrations of 2000–6000 mg l^?1 Cl. Recharge and discharge rates to and from the deep aquifer, were estimated to be of the order of 5–20 mm a^?1 and 50–300 mm a^?1 respectively. Saturated conditions existed throughout winter within the seep and the immediately adjacent non-saline area, with up to 60 per cent of the hillslope soils becoming saturated after major rainfall events ( > 20 mm day^?1). In the mid-slopes, in particular along a central depression, saturation of the shallow soils caused macropore channel recharge to take place through the clay-textured subsoils. Water-level responses suggest that approximately 25–30 per cent of annual recharge occurred from one storm studied in September 1984. Recharge through macropore channels is a significant mechanism in the concave slope areas on the hillslope. Throughflow was found to be a major source of water, but not salt, contributing to the saline seep. In general, the contribution of throughflow was found to decrease further inland at other sites studied. However, at inland sites where perennial, perched aquifers have developed in deep sands, saline areas have been caused by throughflow and not by deep aquifer discharge.     

Field data and flow system response in clay (vertisol) shale terrain,north central Texas,USA

The water budget in clay shale terrain is controlled by a complex interaction between the vertisol soil layer, the underlying fractured rock, land use, topography, and seasonal trends in rainfall and evapotranspiration. Rainfall, runoff, lateral flow, soil moisture, and groundwater levels were monitored over an annual recharge cycle. Four phases of soil–aquifer response were noted over the study period: (1) dry‐season cracking of soils; (2) runoff initiation, lateral flow and aquifer recharge; (3) crack closure and down‐slope movement of subsurface water, with surface seepage; (4) a drying phase. Surface flow predominated within the watershed (25% of rainfall), but lateral flow through the soil zone continued for most of the year and contributed 11% of stream flow through surface seepage. Actual flow through the fractured shale makes up a small fraction of the water budget but does appear to influence surface seepage by its effect on valley‐bottom storage. When the valley soil storage is full, lateral flow exits onto the valley‐bottom surface as seasonal seeps. Well response varied with depth and hillslope position. FLOWTUBE model results and regional recharge estimates are consistent with an aquifer recharge of 1·6% of annual precipitation calculated from well heights and specific yield of the shale aquifer. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Tracing sediment movement in interrill overland flow on a semi-arid grassland hillslope using magnetic susceptibility

Experiments were undertaken to determine the feasibility of tracing sediment movement in interrill overland flow. Crushed magnetite was introduced as a source-line 10 cm wide by 8 m long on a runoff plot 18 m wide by 29 m long located in southern Arizona. Initial magnetic susceptibilities along this source line, and along three transects located 0·25, 2·95 and 5 m downslope of the source-line, were measured. Movement of the magnetite in response to three rainfall simulation experiments was monitored. During the first two experiments, overland flow discharge was sampled at miniature flumes located along two cross sections on the plot downslope of the source-line, and at a supercritical flume at the plot outlet. Magnetic susceptibilities along the source-line and transects were measured after all three experiments. Results show that the magnetite moves very early in the experiments and that it reaches one of the flumes 2 m downslope of the source-line in 3 min. Most of the tracer moves a very short distance: 29·7 per cent is deposited within 25 cm of the source-line and only 2·2 per cent is deposited 2·95 m away. The deposition rate appears to decrease exponentially away from the source-line. Very little magnetite is recorded in the flow through the miniature flumes: in general it makes up less than 1 per cent of the total sediment load. No temporal pattern in these percentages is observed. Magnetite appears to be an effective tracer of sediment movement in interrill overland flow, though its higher density than natural soil may affect its detachment and transport.     

A large weighing lysimeter for evapotranspiration and soil‐water–groundwater exchange studies

A large weighing lysimeter was installed at Yucheng Comprehensive Experimental Station, north China, for evapotranspiration and soil‐water–groundwater exchange studies. Features of the lysimeter include the following: (i) mass resolution equivalent to 0·016 mm of water to accurately and simultaneously determine hourly evapotranspiration, surface evaporation and groundwater recharge; (ii) a surface area of 3·14 m² and a soil profile depth of 5·0 m to permit normal plant development, soil‐water extraction, soil‐water–groundwater exchanges, and fluctuations of groundwater level; (iii) a special supply–drainage system to simulate field conditions of groundwater within the lysimeter; (iv) a soil mass of about 30 Mg, including both unsaturated and saturated loam. The soil consists mainly of mealy sand and light loam. Monitoring the vegetated lysimeter during the growing period of winter wheat, from October 1998 through to June 1999, indicated that during the period groundwater evaporation contributed 16·6% of total evapotranspiration for a water‐table depth from 1·6 m to 2·4 m below ground surface. Too much irrigation reduced the amount of upward water flow from the groundwater table, and caused deep percolation to the groundwater. Data from neutron probe and tensiometers suggest that soil‐water‐content profiles and soil‐water‐potential profiles were strongly affected by shallow groundwater. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Prescribed‐fire effects on rill and interrill runoff and erosion in a mountainous sagebrush landscape

Changing fire regimes and prescribed‐fire use in invasive species management on rangelands require improved understanding of fire effects on runoff and erosion from steeply sloping sagebrush‐steppe. Small (0·5 m²) and large (32·5 m²) plot rainfall simulations (85 mm h^–1, 1 h) and concentrated flow methodologies were employed immediately following burning and 1 and 2 years post‐fire to investigate infiltration, runoff and erosion from interrill (rainsplash, sheetwash) and rill (concentrated flow) processes on unburned and burned areas of a steeply sloped sagebrush site on coarse‐textured soils. Soil water repellency and vegetation were assessed to infer relationships in soil and vegetation factors that influence runoff and erosion. Runoff and erosion from rainfall simulations and concentrated flow experiments increased immediately following burning. Runoff returned to near pre‐burn levels and sediment yield was greatly reduced with ground cover recovery to 40 per cent 1 year post‐fire. Erosion remained above pre‐burn levels on large rainfall simulation and concentrated flow plots until ground cover reached 60 per cent two growing seasons post‐fire. The greatest impact of the fire was the threefold reduction of ground cover. Removal of vegetation and ground cover and the influence of pre‐existing strong soil‐water repellency increased the spatial continuity of overland flow, reduced runoff and sediment filtering effects of vegetation and ground cover, and facilitated increased velocity and transport capacity of overland flow. Small plot rainfall simulations suggest ground cover recovery to 40 per cent probably protected the site from low‐return‐interval storms, large plot rainfall and concentrated flow experiments indicate the site remained susceptible to elevated erosion rates during high‐intensity or long duration events until ground cover levels reached 60 per cent. The data demonstrate that the persistence of fire effects on steeply‐sloped, sandy sagebrush sites depends on the time period required for ground cover to recover to near 60 per cent and on the strength and persistence of ‘background’ or fire‐induced soil water repellency. Published in 2009 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Recharge,upflux and water table response for shallow water table conditions in southwest Florida

A disproportionate increase or decrease in water table in response to minor water input or drainage is observed in shallow water table conditions inside drainage lysimeters. This increase happens because the capillary fringe of the shallow water table reaches up to or near the surface (Wieringermeer effect). The correlations between water table level changes and rainfall, seepage irrigation, drip irrigation, and drainage were analysed. Correlations with rainfall, seepage irrigation, and drainage were high (R² ranged from 0·46 to 0·97). Drip irrigation had low correlations due to the low rates of application (R² ranged from 0·26 to 0·44). Conventional methods of calculating recharge, such as multiplying the specific yield with the water table fluctuations, cannot be used for Wieringermeer effect situations. A method using water balance data and soil moisture at different depths in the lysimeters was developed to estimate recharge and upflux. The recharge results were used to develop the apparent specific yield S_ya, which could be used to calculate consequent recharge events from water table fluctuation data. Combining the water table fluctuation relationships developed with the S_ya value will allow the prediction of recharge from rainfall and irrigation events without the need for soil moisture equipment. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The mechanism of unsaturated flow through a volcanic ash layer under humid climatic conditions

It is very interesting and meaningful to investigate the rainfall-groundwater recharge process under the humid climatic condition of Japan, where mean annual precipitation is about 1600 mm. The present study has investigated soil water movement in the unsaturated zones of a volcanic ash layer, called the ‘Kanto Loam formation’, using environmental tritium as a tracer. The site selected is a flat ground surface on a terraced upland which has a deep unsaturated zone (about 20 m) with a relatively high water content (about 70 per cent) consisting of nearly uniform Kanto Loam formation. The tritium concentrations in groundwater, soil waters having different matric potentials, precipitation, and the seepage water moving through the formation into a man-made cave were measured to characterize the rainfall-groundwater recharge process and the effect of large pore spaces in the formation mentioned by previous studies. Because of the humid climate of Japan, there appears to be a unique soil water flow characteristic which may involve percolation through large pore spaces during heavy rainfall. However, in a fine grained and high water content soil like the Kanto Loam formation, the existence of this flow through large pore spaces does not have a significant effect upon the whole recharge process. The recharge model of displacement flow with dispersion is useful in estimating the tritium concentration profile of soil water. The calculated result shows a recharge rate of 2.5 mm/day. The value obtained reflects the hydrological characteristics of the uplands covered with volcanic ash.     

Experimental study of rill bank collapse

Rill bank collapse is an important component in the adjustment of channel morphology to changes in discharge and sediment flux. Sediment inputs from bank collapse cause abrupt changes in flow resistance, flow patterns and downstream sediment concentrations. Generally, bank retreat involves gradual lateral erosion, caused by flow shear stress, and sudden bank collapse, triggered by complex interactions between channel flow and bank and soil water conditions. Collapse occurs when bank height exceeds the critical height where gravitational forces overcome soil shear strength. An experimental study examined conditions for collapse in eroding rill channels. Experiments with and without a deep water table were carried out on a meandering rill channel in a loamy sand and sandy loam in a laboratory flume under simulated rainfall and controlled runon. Different discharges were used to initiate knickpoint and rill incision. Soil water dynamics were monitored using microstandpipes, tensiometers and time domain reflectometer probes (TDR probes). Bank collapse occurred with newly developed or rising pre‐existing water tables near rill banks, associated with knickpoint migration. Knickpoint scour increased effective bank height, caused positive pore water pressure in the bank toe and reduced negative pore pressures in the unsaturated zone to near zero. Matric tension in unsaturated parts of the bank and a surface seal on the ‘interrill’ zone behind the bank enhanced stability, while increased effective bank height and positive pore water pressure at the bank toe caused instability. With soil water contents >35 per cent (sandy loam) and >23 per cent (loamy sand), critical bank heights were 0·11–0·12 m and 0·06–0·07 m, respectively. Bank toe undercutting at the outside of the rill bends also triggered instability. Bank displacement was quite different on the two soils. On the loamy sand, the failed block slid to the channel bed, revealing only the upper half of the failure plane, while on the sandy loam the failed block toppled forwards, exposing the failure plane for the complete bank height. This study has shown that it is possible to predict location, frequency and magnitude of the rill bank collapse, providing a basis for incorporation into predictive models for hillslope soil loss or rill network development. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Processes of water movement through a chalk coombe deposit in Southeast England

The processes of water movement through the Coombe Deposit in a chalk dry valley near Eastbourne in Southeast England were investigated using simple methods based on regular weekly measurements of rainfall, soil water content, and soil water potential. The drainage flux (recharge) through the soil was determined using the water balance method during the winter and the zero flux plane (ZFP) method after the appearance of the ZFP in the spring. The unsaturated hydraulic conductivity was derived applying Darcy's Law in a novel way using the measured potential gradients and weekly drainage fluxes. The derived conductivity characteristics were adequate to identify the flow mechanisms, to illustrate the difference in behaviour between the horizons of the soil profile, and to give some indication of pore water velocities. The mean daily drainage flux at 2.85 m depth during the recharge period from 10 October 1980 to 29 May 1981 was 1.6 mm d^?1. Weekly mean rates of up to 3.7 mm d^?1 were observed, but peak short term rates must have considerably exceeded this figure. It was shown that, in the lower part of the Coombe Deposit, when drainage fluxes are large, much of the flux passes through a very small proportion of the wetted cross-sectional area of the soil. This gives rise to pore water velocities of at least 3 m d^?1 at a depth of 2.85 m and 0.5 m d^?1 between 0.5 m and 2.5 m depth. These results show that pollutants may be moved very rapidly through the profile in this, and similar, material. The core sampling techniques normally used to monitor pollutant movement in the chalk are unlikely to succeed in detecting this movement, not only because it is transient but also because it occupies only a very small proportion of the water filled pores.     

Temporal dynamics of soil water balance components in a karst range in southeastern Spain: estimation of potential recharge

Abstract

This paper analyses the temporal dynamics of soil water balance components in a representative recharge area of the Sierra de Gádor (Almeria, southeastern Spain) in two hydrological years. Two approaches are used to estimate daily potential recharge (PR): Approach 1 based on deriving PR from the water balance as the difference between measurements of rainfall (P) and actual evapotranspiration (E) obtained by eddy covariance; and Approach 2 with PR obtained from the dynamic pattern of the soil moisture (θ) recorded at two depths in the site's thin soil (average 0.35 m thickess). For the hydrological year 2003/04, which was slightly drier than the 30-year average, E accounted for 64% of rainfall and occurred mainly in late spring and early summer. The PR estimated by Approach 1 was 181 ± 18 mm year^-1 (36% of rainfall), suggesting an effective groundwater recharge in the study area. In the unusually dry hydrological year 2004/05, E was about 215 mm year^-1, close to the annual rainfall input, and allowing very little (8 ± 12 mm year^-1) PR according to Approach 1. Estimation of PR based on Approach 2 resulted in PR rates lower than those found by Approach 1, because Approach 2 does not take into account the recharge that occurs through preferential flow pathways (cracks, joints and fissures) which were not monitored with the θ probes. Moreover, using Approach 2, the PR estimates differed widely depending on the time scale considered: with daily mean θ data, PR estimation was lower, especially in late spring, while θ data at 30 min resolution yielded a more reliable prediction of the fraction of total PR resulting from the downward movement of soil water by gravity.

Citation Cantón, Y., Villagarcía, L., Moro, M. J., Serrano-Ortíz, P., Were, A., Alcalá, F. J., Kowalski, A. S., Solé-Benet, A., Lázaro, R. & Domingo, F. (2010) Temporal dynamics of soil water balance components in a karst range in southeastern Spain: estimation of potential recharge. Hydrol. Sci. J. 55(5), 737–753.     

Estimating groundwater recharge in lowland watersheds

Little attention has been given to the role of groundwater in the hydrological cycle of lowland watersheds. Our objective in this study was to estimate total recharge to groundwater by analysing water table response to storm events and the rate at which water was transferred into the shallow aquifer. This was conducted at three sites in a rural watershed in the lower Atlantic coastal plain near Charleston, South Carolina, USA. A novel version of the water table fluctuation method was used to estimate total recharge to the shallow aquifer by comparing hourly data of water table position following storm events and measuring water table recession behavior, rather than subjective graphical analysis methods. Also, shallow aquifer recharge rates (vertical fluxes) were estimated using Darcy's Law by comparing static water levels in a water table well and in a shallow piezometer during dry periods. The total annual recharge estimated ranged from 107 ± 39 mm·yr^–1 (5–10% of annual precipitation) at a poorly drained topographic low area to 1140 ± 230 mm·yr^–1 (62–94% of annual precipitation) for a moderately well‐drained upland site. The average aquifer recharge rate was 114 ± 60 mm·yr^–1, which is similar to previous estimations of base flow for the ephemeral third‐order streams in this watershed. The difference in the two methods may have been caused by processes not accounted for in the Darcy flux method, soil moisture deficits, and average evapotranspiration demand, which is about 1100 mm·yr^–1 for this region. Although other factors also can affect partitioning of recharge, an integrated approach to inspecting easily gathered groundwater data can provide information on an often neglected aspect of water budget estimation. We also discuss the effects of land use change on recharge reduction, given a typical development scenario for the region. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Effects of frozen soil and snow cover on cold‐season soil water dynamics in Tokachi,Japan

Despite the potential impact of winter soil water movements in cold regions, relatively few field studies have investigated cold‐season hydrological processes that occur before spring‐onset of snowmelt infiltration. The contribution of soil water fluxes in winter to the annual water balance was evaluated over 5 years of field observations at an agricultural field in Tokachi, Hokkaido, Japan. In two of the winters, soil frost reached a maximum depth of 0·2 m (‘frozen’ winters), whereas soil frost was mostly absent during the remaining three winters (‘unfrozen’ winters). Significant infiltration of winter snowmelt water, to a depth exceeding 1·0 m, occurred during both frozen and unfrozen winters. Such infiltration ranged between 126 and 255 mm, representing 28–51% of total annual soil water fluxes. During frozen winters, a substantial quantity of water (ca 40 mm) was drawn from deeper layers into the 0–0·2 m topsoil layer when this froze. Under such conditions, the progression and regression of the freezing front, regulated by the thickness of snow cover, controlled the quantity of soil water flux below the frozen layer. During unfrozen winters, 13–62 mm of water infiltrated to a depth of 0·2 m, before the spring snowmelt. These results indicate the importance of correctly evaluating winter soil water movement in cold regions. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Soil erosion by surface water flow on a stony,semiarid hillslope

Soil erosion on hillslopes occurs by processes of soil splash from raindrop impacts and sediment entrainment by surface water flows. This study investigates the process of soil erosion by surface water flow on a stony soil in a semiarid environment. A field experimental method was developed whereby erosion by concentrated flow could be measured in predefined flow areas without disturbing the soil surface. The method allowed for measurements in this study of flow erosion at a much wider range of slopes (2·6 to 30·1 per cent) and unit discharge rates (0·0007 to 0·007 m2 s−1) than have been previously feasible. Flow velocities were correlated to discharge and hydraulic radius, but not to slope. The lack of correlation between velocity and slope might have been due to the greater rock cover on the steeper slopes which caused the surface to be hydraulically rougher and thus counteract the expected effect of slope on flow velocity. The detachment data illustrated limitations in applying a linear hydraulic shear stress model over the entire range of the data collected. Flow detachment rates were better correlated to a power function of either shear stress (r2 = 0·51) or stream power (r2 = 0·59). Published in 1999 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Assessment of transmission losses and groundwater recharge from runoff events in a wadi under shortage of data on lateral inflow,Negev, Israel

A hydrological–lithostratigraphical model was developed for assessment of transmission losses and groundwater recharge from runoff events in arid water courses where hydrological and meteorological records are incomplete. Water balance equations were established for reaches between hydrometric stations. Because rainfall and tributary flow data are scarce, lateral inflow, which is an essential component of the water balance equation, could not be estimated directly. The solution was obtained by developing a method which includes a hydrological–lithostratigraphical analogy. This is based on the following assumptions: (a) runoff resulting from a given rainfall event is related to the watershed surface lithology; (b) for a given event, the spatial distribution of runoff reflects the distribution of rainfall: and (c) transmission losses are uniquely related to the total inflow to the reach. The latter relationship, called the loss function, and the water balance equation comprise a model which simultaneously assesses lateral inflow and transmission losses for runoff events recorded at the terminal stations. The model was applied to three reaches of the arid Nahal Tsin in Israel. In this case study, the transmission losses were of the same order of magnitude as the flow at the major hydrometric stations. The losses were subdivided into channel moistening, which subsequently evaporates, and deep percolation, which recharges groundwater. For large runoff events, evaporation was substantially smaller than the losses. The mean annual recharge of groundwater from runoff events in the Tsin watershed was 4·1×10⁶ m³, while the mean annual flow volume at the major stations ranged from 0·6 to 1·5×10⁶ m³. Once in 100 years, the annual recharge may be seven times higher than the mean annual value, but the recharge during most years is very small. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Recharge processes during snowmelt: An isotopic and hydrometric investigation

Results from hydrometric and isotopic investigations of unsaturated flow during snowmelt are presented for a hillslope underlain by well-sorted sands. Passage of melt and rainwater through the vadose zone was detected from temporal changes in soil water ²H concentrations obtained from sequential soil cores. Bypassing flow was indicated during the initial snowmelt phase, but was confined to the near-surface zone. Recharge below this zone was via translatory flow, as meltwater inputs displaced premelt soil water. Estimates of premelt water fluxes indicate that up to 19 per cent of the premelt soil water may have been immobile. Average water particle velocities during snowmelt ranged from 6.2 × 10^?7 to 1.1 × 10^?6 ms^?1, suggesting that direct groundwater recharge by meltwater during snowmelt was confined to areas where the premelt water table was within 1 m of the ground surface. Soil water ²H signatures showed a rapid response to isotopically-heavy rain-on-snow inputs late in the melt. In addition, spatial variations in soil moisture content at a given depth induced a pronounced lateral component to the predominantly vertical transport of water. Both factors may complicate isotopic profiles in the vadose zone, and should be considered when employing environmental isotopes to infer recharge processes during snowmelt.     

Hydrological and salinity impacts of a bio‐drainage strategy application in the Yizre'el Valley,Israel

The bio‐drainage–commercial forestry strategy was applied in five plots in the Yizre'el Valley, northern Israel, to evaluate the hydrological and salinity impacts of eucalypt plantations. Each plot contained a mix of 11 selected eucalyptus species/ecotypes. Two plots (Nahalal and Genigar), representing the two extreme waterlogging/salinity conditions in the valley, were selected for in‐depth monitoring over a 10‐year period to assess the likely environmental improvement through bio‐drainage. Despite impressive growth rates of genetically improved Eucalyptus camaldulensis in the year‐round waterlogged, slightly saline Nahalal site (650 mm annual rainfall), the water uptake by the trees was insufficient to control the rising water table caused by excessive water inputs, both natural and human. In the more saline, alkaline and drier Genigar plot (450 mm annual rainfall), where rainfall is the only water input, the ground water dropped to below 3 m from soil surface in the fourth year after planting, i.e. deeper than the adjacent ground water levels. Both sites showed appreciable rise in wells that penetrated the 3‐ to 4‐m confining layer. The 10‐year salinity (EC) trend of the top layer in Nahalal varied because the drainage was limited by the positive water balance and the above‐average spells of dry winters. In and below the 4 m deep layer the EC remained below 1·5 dS m^?1 throughout the entire 10‐year study. The last EC measurement, taken in 2003, showed values not higher than 4 dS m^?1 throughout the 6 m soil profile. In Genigar, there was significant leaching of salts from the top layer (1 m) during the 9‐year monitoring period, but recently a salts ‘bulge’ was gradually developed in the 1–5 m strata indicating that the expected downward movement of leached salts was impeded by the 3–4 m deep low‐permeability clayey layer that lies over a coarser, far more conductive and notably confined layer, which leads to a perched water body. The last EC measurement at the end of 2003 showed a maximum value of 5·5 dS m^?1 at 3 m depth. No signs of tree stress were observed in either site, at any soil depth during the 10 years of monitoring. Theoretical considerations do not support the hypothesis that there would be a fatal long‐term accumulation of salts in the root zone. The Israeli experience has shown that the bio‐drainage technique can effectively lower a shallow water table and reverse salinity trends, provided that the overall water balance is negative, i.e. that the water inputs match the water use by the tree plantation and local drainage characteristics. However, the rate of improvement of the hydraulic, salinity, sodicity and soil physical properties is site specific. Excess fresh water inputs into the plantation, although they create waterlogging conditions, supply unlimited water to the trees, which, in turn, show exceptional growth rates, with usable commercial value. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Understanding hydrological processes in a highly stressed granitic aquifer in southern India

The results of a study evaluating the recharge/discharge conditions of an unconfined stressed granitic aquifer situated in a semi‐arid region of Andhra Pradesh, Southern India are presented. Over the last three decades, excessive withdrawal of groundwater has drastically lowered the water table to the bedrock. The watershed studied was divided into four zones based on geomorphology and hydrogeological conditions. Using environmental chloride data pertaining to groundwater, soil depth profiles, and some hydrogeologic and hydrochemical observations, a recharge model for the watershed was developed. The model revealed that the bulk of the vertical recharge in the western elevated land occurs through preferred pathways and that a small fraction occurs through the soil matrix. In addition, the watershed has a poor hydrogeologic fabric, as indicated by the small range of matrix flow recharge (1 to 1·5% of rainfall) among the four zones. The dominating preferential flow was high (～16% of the annual average rainfall) in the valley fills, but decreased to 5–5·5% in the plains. Furthermore, although the bulk of the recharge occurs vertically, considerable lateral movement of groundwater down the slope indicates that sequential hydrochemical changes occur. Distinct geomorphological features that exist in the watershed support the proposed model. Situations similar to those described above may exist in numerous watersheds in the granitic hard rock region; therefore, information obtained from investigations conducted in this watershed can aid in the development of plans enabling the sustainable exploitation of watersheds that have not yet been developed, as well as implementation of appropriate rainwater conservation measures in over‐exploited watersheds. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Water percolation process studies in a Mediterranean karst area

To investigate processes of water percolation, the drip response of stalactites in a karstic cave below a 143 m² sprinkling plot was measured. The experiment was conducted in Mount Carmel, Israel, at the end of the dry season and intended to simulate a series of two high‐intensity storms on dry and wet soils. In addition to hydrometric measurements (soil moisture, surface runoff, stalactite dripping rates), two types of tracers (electrical conductivity and bromide) were used to study recharge processes, water origin and mixing inside a 28‐m vadose zone. Results suggested that slow, continuous percolation through the rock matrix is of minor importance and that percolating water follows a complicated pattern including vertical and horizontal flow directions. While bromide tracing allowed identification of quick direct flow paths at all drips with maximum flow velocities of 4·3 m/h, mixing analysis suggested that major water fractions were mobilized by piston flow, pushing out water stored in the unsaturated zone above the cave. Under dry preconditions, 80 mm of artificial rainfall applied in less than 7 h was not enough to initiate significant downward water percolation. Most water was required to fill uppermost soil and rock storages. Under wet preconditions during the second day sprinkling, higher water contents in soils and karst cavities facilitated piston flow effects and a more intense response of the cave drips. Results indicate that in Mediterranean karst regions, filling of the unsaturated zone, including soil and rock storages, is an important precondition for the onset of significant water percolation and recharge. This results in a higher seasonal threshold for water percolation than for the generation of surface runoff. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Chloride,hydrochemical and isotope methods of groundwater recharge estimation in eastern Mediterranean areas: a case study in Jordan

Jordan is classified as an arid to semi‐arid country with a population according to 1999 estimates of 4·8 millions inhabitants and a growth rate of 3·4%. Efficient use of Jordan's scarce water is becoming increasingly important as the urban population grows. This study was carried out within the framework of the joint European Research project ‘Groundwater recharge in the eastern Mediterranean’ and describes a combined methodology for groundwater recharge estimation in Jordan, the chloride method, as well as isotopic and hydrochemical approaches. Recharge estimations using the chloride method range from 14 mm year^?1 (mean annual precipitation of 500 mm) for a shallow and stony soil to values of 3·7 mm year^?1 for a thick desert soil (mean annual precipitation of 100 mm) and values of well below 1 mm year^?1 for thick alluvial deposits (mean annual rainfall of 250 mm). Isotopically, most of the groundwater in the Hammad basin, east Jordan, falls below the global meteoric water line and far away from the Mediterranean meteoric water line, suggesting that the waters are ancient and were recharged in a climate different than Mediterranean. Tritium levels in the groundwater of the Hammad basin are less than the detection limit (<1·3 TU). However, three samples in east Hammad, where the aquifer is unconfined, present tritium values between 1 and 4 TU. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.