COLLECTING TIME-USE DATA IN THIRD WORLD RURAL COMMUNITIES∗

To collect time-use data in Third World rural areas, researchers should use broad-focus studies that provide adequate coverage throughout the year and employ direct observation of activities. Various methods used by geographers to obtain time expenditure information are examined in relation to these criteria; certain weaknesses are discussed. An alternative method developed by Allen Johnson, an anthropologist, has particular advantages for geographers because it facilitates mapping spatial patterns of time use, calculating average distances traveled to activities, and computing time spent on movement.     

Tasks,Strategies, and Cognitive Processes Associated With Navigational Map Reading: A Review Perspective*

All geographers use and may create maps in their professional activities. While perceived by some as merely tools to present spatial information, maps are actually complicated communication mechanisms. Many geographers spend tremendous amounts of time learning about verbal and written communication (how to speak, listen, read critically, and write effectively). But to many, one of the basic tools of geographic communication, the map, is a general source of unknown. Many previous papers have focused on how to create effective maps; this paper focuses on how people read and use navigation maps. Everyone completes map‐reading tasks, uses (often different) strategies, and processes information through cognitive processing. Geographers may benefit from understanding how they, as well as their map‐viewing public, process the information contained on their maps. This paper addresses terms and issues addressed in navigational map reading, specifically including tasks and strategies as well as the governing cognitive processes.     

中国时空间行为研究进展

自时间地理学和活动分析法引入中国以来的近20年间,时空间行为研究已经成为中国城市地理学的重要领域。中国时空间行为研究关注城市空间重构的描述与解释,试图从行为角度解释中国城市社会转型,强调转型期中国城市空间与居民个体行为之间的互动关系,重视日常生活、生活质量、社会公正、低碳社会、智慧城市等热点问题,探索在城市交通、旅游和城市规划等领域中的实践应用。中国时空间行为研究已经形成了以解读城市转型为目标、以规划应用为导向的鲜明特点,为理解中国城市制度与空间转型背景下人类行为模式的复杂性和多样性提供了一个全新的视角。但是,中国时空间行为研究依然面临着理论发展滞后、实践应用需要突破等挑战。本文是对时空行为研究近年来发展的综述性文章,从数据采集与分析方法演进、实证研究与规划应用进展等方面回顾了近20年来中国城市时空间行为研究的最新进展,致力于推动不同学科领域之间的交流和时空间行为研究自身的发展。     

CLAIMING NEW TERRITORY FOR A STABLE PEACE: HOW GEOGRAPHY CAN CONTRIBUTE*

Neglect by most geographers, especially political geographers, of one of the major issues of our time, that of war and peace, is criticized. Theories, methods and advances in the field of international relations are briefly reviewed and suggestions are offered to bring the geographic profession to a greater awareness of the major research issues. Sources for the study of international conflicts are listed.     

A critical analysis of objective criteria and methods in conflict and land-use mapping

In geography, as in other types of social science, the discussion of objectivity has been a long-standing issue. This article is mainly about concept definition and analysis. It discusses the problem of objectivity in science and planning, and shows how it functions in planning activities, with a focus on conflict-mapping and land-use mapping in particular. All specific planning applications face certain meta-theoretical considerations of how to deal with different types of knowledge and how to use them in planning. Different professionals carry out planning activities, and geographers are important contributors in this field. It is argued that criteria and methods that often are taken to be objective hide value systems and conflicts. There needs to be a broader understanding that what are called facts change through time, and thus their validity cannot be taken to be absolute. There are different ways of 'knowing' the world and constructing answers to problems. Often criteria and methods are used to present definitive solutions, when different propositions should have been matters for discussion and negotiation among the different interest groups during the process.     

THE EXPANSION METHOD: IMPLICATIONS FOR GEOGRAPHIC RESEARCH*

Geographic phenomena and our models of them are closely linked to the spatial-temporal contexts in which they are observed. The expansion method is a procedure that incorporates contextual effects into mathematical models. More importantly, it is the basis for a movement by some geographers away from the classical spatial science paradigm. The evolving paradigm associated with the expansion method represents a reformulation of the way in which geographers think about and use models, and is consistent with a more realistic perspective on the nature of geographic inquiry.     

1912—1949年中国地理学者的发展特征分析

本文基于多种资料,梳理了1912—1949年中国地理学者姓名、生卒年、籍贯、领域、教育与工作经历等数据,从来源、增长、结构3个层面讨论当时中国地理学者发展进程。研究发现1912—1949年间：① 地理学者在来源层面可分舆地学者、外聘地理学者、现代学制培养地理学者（含有交集关系的国内培养学者、留学培养学者、跨学科学者）3种类型,不同类型群体对地理学者发展的影响差异明显;② 地理学者数量发展可分1912—1927年波动增长,1928—1939年持续增长,1940—1941年急速增长和1942—1949年放缓增长4个时期;③ 中国地理学者学科结构、领域结构、学缘结构、地域结构、年龄结构、性别结构等方面均表现为失衡但失衡程度趋于降低的态势;④ 地理学者发展与地理教学、研究机构发展关系密切,特别是高等地理教学机构对地理学者发展有多重影响。1912—1949年中国地理学者的发展为中国科学地理学的持续进步奠定了人才基础,其过程同时是中国近现代地理学转型的一个侧面。     

西方金融地理学研究进展及其启示

金融地理学作为一门新兴的分支学科,已受到越来越多地理学者的重视。本文试图总结国外学者在金融地理学领域的研究进展,阐述其当前主要研究议题,提出对我国金融地理研究的启示。国外金融地理学的研究主要经历了以下几个发展阶段：自20世纪70年代以来,地理学家开始关注金融机构在引导特定地区资本流动过程中所起的作用; 80年代,学者们转向研究金融在西方社会中的角色、特定金融制度的空间组织与运作、金融中心的发展、金融流动与产业发展的关系等; 90年代以来,金融地理研究中出现了三个贯穿、且相互增强的研究对象,即解除管制、技术创新及全球化,相关研究中出现了文化制度转向。当前主要研究议题包括： 金融中心的形成、发展及萎缩; 金融排除及其带来的地方货币系统的研究;货币地理学研究等。根据国外的研究进展及经验,我国可以在金融服务网络的空间格局、货币流地域差异、金融排除及其相关的社会问题等方面展开研究。     

虚拟休闲社区的营造与表征:女性网购案例

科技的快速发展促生了虚拟休闲时代的到来。以虚拟休闲为切入点,消费者的网络购物实践为研究对象,采用半结构化访谈的研究方法,分析网络消费实践中所形成的虚拟社区,探索女性消费者参与虚拟休闲社区所塑造的互动关系与社区意义。基于ICTs媒介,研究发现:网络消费会重塑现代女性的休闲实践,消费过程中的每个环节包括购买行为结束后的感受都是其获得休闲体验的重要维度;女性网购者自发营造虚拟休闲社区,在强化自我社会角色的同时实现自我休闲;女性网购者在虚拟空间中所获得的愉悦感是群内成员发展其社区关系的纽带,并通过社区的延伸实现和维持积极的自我价值。虚拟休闲会随着载体虚拟化改变其体验形式,并为消费实践与虚拟空间的关系探索提供新的视角。人文地理学者尤其是社会文化地理学者除了关注“客观存在”的地理空间之外,也应该关注“真实存在”的网络空间,网络空间与地理空间一样具有其独特的空间性特征。同时还提出,虚拟休闲也是地理实在休闲的重要补充,并且在当今社会具有不可替代性。     

Aviation-Contrail Impacts on Climate and Climate Change: A Ready-to-Wear Research Mantle for Geographers

Although geographers are highly visible in research into contemporary climate changes accompanying greenhouse gas increases (“global warming”), a relatively little explored component by them is the impact of aviation. This contrasts with the atmospheric science community of cloud physicists, chemists, and numerical modelers, who use geographic tools of trade. Geographers are well positioned to investigate aviation-climate impacts, especially related to contrail clouds, given geographic traditions of environment, spatial variation, regionalization, generalization, and the integrative approach to studying physical and human systems (here, climate, transportation, and energy). We highlight the role played by geographers in contrail-climate studies and advocate for a broader involvement in aviation policy formulation.     

我国社会主义市场经济与经济地理学科的发展

我国由中央计划经济体制向社会主义市场经济体制的转变，为经济地理学科的发展提出许多新课题。本文从总结经济地理学科发展特点入手，分析我国经济地理学科发展的现状及其存在的主要问题，进而探讨在社会主义市场经济条件下，拓宽我国经济地理学科研究与实践领域，认真总结已有的经济地理理论和建立具有中国特色的经济地理学科的途径。     

The Study of Human Action in the Physical Environment

Scientists have been formally studying the consequences of human action at least since Buffon and Humboldt in the 1700s. In 1864, Marsh published Man and Nature, a comprehensive synthesis documenting how people had been transforming Earth. This prominent catalogue of how people disturb Nature's harmonies was updated by Marsh in 1874 and by geographers in 1956 and 1990. Today the leading conceptions of human-environmental interaction are similar to Marsh's theme that people are the disturbers of Nature's harmonies. Effects of human action are considered using conceptions such as direct/indirect, intentional/accidental, and beneficial/detrimental. For a fresh approach, physical geographers could consider action more directly. Human action can be studied as any other process is. Systems concepts and energy flows used to evaluate natural forces can also be used to evaluate human forces. The centennial of the Association of American Geographers is an appropriate time to reflect on how physical geographers have been studying human-environmental interactions and to consider new approaches.     

去中心化和（逆）全球化背景下中国人文地理学的批判性理论探索与方法创新

文章以去中心化和（逆）全球化为背景评估中国的人文地理学研究现状与未来去向。笔者认为近年贸易保护主义和中美争端的不断升级会减缓但不会扭转知识全球化的长期趋势。中国人文地理学者不应该对进入世界舞台失去信心,而应该勇敢正视当前理论和研究创新的重要机遇和挑战。文章通过对比中国人文地理学科与西方同行的研究,发现两者有不少共同的历史和传统,包括研究命题、研究框架和解释方式。比较而言,中国人文地理学更加规范统一、富有组织和系统性,并积极支持国家发展议程;而西方人文地理学强调个人自由、多样性、天马行空（“Blue-sky enquiry”）以及独立于政府的批判性视角。文章指出三种不同的价值观作为供中国人文地理学者进行理论批判的重要视角。其他可能的理论探索方式包括将问题置于不同的时间和空间,使用不同的数据和方法进行多重验证,从基本假设出发来进行理论解构,批判性地辨析因果关系,以及在不同的尺度下重新检视研究问题等。中国人文地理应通过更好地理解三种不同的地理知识,建立有利于激励研究创新的评估体系,探索国际研究和跨学科研究的前沿领域,促进比较研究,以及融合利用不同风格的研究方法等策略来促进研究创新。文章结尾提出三种可能的（逆）全球化情景供中国人文地理学者思考如何迈向充满新挑战和新机遇的未来。     

The role of distance in peri-urban national park use: Who visits them and how far do they travel?

There is a sizable literature about the factors shaping park visitation and use – especially for urban parks, including (i) geographic (e.g. proximity), (ii) socio-cultural (e.g. population characteristics) and to a lesser extent, (iii) individual psychometric factors (e.g. attitudes and values). Yet comparatively little is known about how factors related to distance may affect peri-urban national park use, particularly outside the United States. This paper reports on research investigating distance-related factors affecting use of a peri-urban national park in Brisbane, Australia. This study found that older visitors live closer to the park while younger visitors travel further to use it. Surprisingly, travel distance did not vary with the type of recreational activities that users were conducting in the park. These results have implications for park planning and management including user demand for different recreational activities in peri-urban national parks. Results are useful for scholars using distance decay models to explain travel behaviour, evidencing the empirical veracity of the model in different places and across different service types. The findings are especially important for geographers because they demonstrate that assumptions about uniform park catchments may be unsupported and need to be empirically validated.     

Methodological Issues in Researching Migration

Population geographers should consider a mixed methods approach to thestudy of migration. This methodological position arises in response to the challenges of contemporary social theory. It is argued that application of structuration theory favours use of a diversity of methods to investigate the recursive relationship between agency and structure. Similarly a realist stance, as advocated by Sayer (1992), leads to a mixing of methods in order to carry out the synthesising tasks expected of geographers. Postmodernism, when interpreted as method, also points the researcher to consider adopting flexible research practices in order to capture the multiplicities of meaning associated with migration and place. These points are illustrated by a case study of migration to and from Hong Kong.     

OPERATION IRAQI FREEDOM: A MILITARY GEOGRAPHICAL PERSPECTIVE*

ABSTRACT. The war in Iraq has spanned the full spectrum of military operations: intense combat, stability‐and‐support operations, and peacetime activities. Regardless of their nature and relative intensity, military operations are shaped by the characteristics of the military operating environment. Consequently, the scale, tempo, and complexity of any type of military endeavor are linked to the physical and cultural landscapes of the region in which it is conducted. Military geographers use geographical information, tools, and techniques to examine those links. Iraq's operating environment is studied to identify the relevant components of its physical and human geography. This military geographical examination of Iraq tells us a great deal about how the physical and cultural environment have influenced the war, as well as how the complexity of its human landscape continues to affect the postwar rebuilding of the country.     

西方经济地理学理论建构的发展与论争

本文从历史和现实的视角,对西方经济地理学理论建构的演变与近期发展趋势进行了分析与总结。经济活动的区位、空间与地方是经济地理学研究的基本对象,也是经济地理学认识社会经济生活的基本视角,其理论建构的核心始终围绕着区位、空间与地方来进行,并以分析它们与经济、政治、社会、自然、环境的关系以及其中经济行动者的能动性与结构的关系而走向理论建构的多样化和多元化,而技术、制度、文化和关系、尺度、调节是其理论建构的重要中介,也是当今"新经济地理学"理论建构争论的核心所在。     

IRBs as Asset for Ethics Education in Geography

This article frames the research ethics review process conducted by institutional review boards (IRBs) as an opportunity to enrich the education of geographers. Student participation in the IRB process enhances the education of geographers at the undergraduate and graduate levels in two key ways. Geographers can use participation in this process to demonstrate the relevance of a disciplinary code of ethics to professional practice. More important, such participation helps learners, particularly novices, conceptualize research as an ongoing process of intentional inquiry, in which the protection of research participants is vigilantly observed.     

Geography's Profile in Public Debate “Inside the Beltway” and the National Academies*

Geographers continue to engage in public debate “inside the Beltway” by participation within and through federal agencies and through the National Research Council. Several examples illustrate the level and kind of this engagement, which has been concentrated on environmental and spatial data and analysis themes. Most professional geographers have the opportunity to engage in this form of public debate through participation in the activities of the National Research Council. The level of this participation has been surprisingly strong, given the small size of the community of professional geographers, and has helped to shape both U.S. and international research agendas relevant to geographic research. Participation, however, is concentrated in a few programs and individuals, raising questions about the sustainability of geography's voice in this public activity.     

Methodological Issues in Researching Migration

Population geographers should consider a mixed methods approach to thestudy of migration. This methodological position arises in response to the challenges of contemporary social theory. It is argued that application of structuration theory favours use of a diversity of methods to investigate the recursive relationship between agency and structure. Similarly a realist stance, as advocated by Sayer (1992), leads to a mixing of methods in order to carry out the synthesising tasks expected of geographers. Postmodernism, when interpreted as method, also points the researcher to consider adopting flexible research practices in order to capture the multiplicities of meaning associated with migration and place. These points are illustrated by a case study of migration to and from Hong Kong.