正断层控制下冲积扇沉积过程与沉积构型模拟实验

正断层构造广泛发育于盆地内和造山带中,其对可容空间分配及沉积物分布具有明显的控制作用,从而影响了冲积扇形态。为进一步探究正断层构造对冲积扇沉积过程及其内部构型的控制作用,利用水槽实验对正断层构造发育背景下的冲积扇发育过程进行模拟再现。研究表明,携带大量沉积物的碎屑流优先在上盘近断层处泄载,后经牵引流的改造,形成沿断面垂向生长、尖端指向物源的三角形分水滩。水动力较强时碎屑流越过分水滩并在分水滩尾部发育越滩朵体,水动力较弱时碎屑流遇分水滩尖端分流后沿断面在分水滩两侧发育断面朵体。受控于断面及分水滩的阻挡,冲积扇表面不同位置的沉积物泄载过程差异较大,粒度差异明显,上盘扇体中分水滩沉积物偏粗,越滩朵体次之,断面朵体最细。冲积扇的发育过程依据分水滩砂体厚度和断距大小之间的差异,共分为3个阶段。断距大小还会影响冲积扇沉积构型,断距越大,上盘可容空间越大,分水滩发育时间越长,扇体内部砂体叠置样式越复杂。受控于正断层的冲积扇内部构型在垂直物源剖面上从近端至远端,分别发育纵向沙坝、分水滩及碎屑流朵体,在平行物源剖面上以复合水道主控、分水滩叠复体主控、多期朵体叠复体主控为主。     

干旱条件下冲积扇的沉积构型和演化过程: 基于水槽模拟实验

利用延时相机以及3D激光扫描仪等设备,通过水槽实验获得了74组扇面地貌数据,并采用定量化的软件对这些数据进行了精细的沉积学分析,明确了干旱条件下冲积扇的沉积演化过程及其控制的沉积构型。研究表明: (1)干旱条件下冲积扇沉积演化过程中水动力、水流样式、扇体增生规律等均存在明显的差异性,根据这些差异将整个模拟实验分为早期、中期、晚期3个阶段。(2)实验早期,扇体水动力较强,主控沉积作用为片流沉积,根据片流沉积的分布范围,可将其分为整体片流沉积和局部片流沉积。(3)实验中期,扇体中远端水动力及扇面扩大速率均有所减小,主控沉积作用为非限定性水道,主要沉积体为朵体沉积,非限定性水道主要分布在近源端,而朵体主要分布在水道末端的开阔地带。(4)实验晚期,受巨大的扇体影响,水动力进一步减小,主控沉积作用为限定性水道沉积。(5)通过实验研究,建立了具有明显3层结构的干旱条件下冲积扇沉积构型模式,其中底层是片流朵体复合体、中层为非限制性水道与末端朵体复合体、顶层是水道和小型末端朵体复合体。     

冲积扇研究现状及沉积模拟实验--以碎屑流和辫状河共同控制的冲积扇为例

近年来,对冲积扇复杂沉积机制与沉积过程的研究受到关注,取得了较大进展。从冲积扇的分类及其沉积特点、冲积扇沉积储层构型表征方法及冲积扇沉积机制等方面对冲积扇研究现状进行了详细综述。之后,针对碎屑流与辫状河共同控制下冲积扇水道演化机制不明的情况,利用水槽沉积模拟对冲积扇过程进行了沉积实验模拟。研究表明,冲积扇具有多种分类方案,反映了冲积扇的多样性和复杂性;冲积扇表征技术主要有现代沉积、野外露头、地下密井网解剖和水槽沉积实验模拟等方法;控制冲积扇发育的异旋回因素主要有:构造差异活动、同生断层的组合样式及物源气候的变化等;自旋回因素控制下冲积扇存在多种沉积机制,其决定了冲积扇内部构型单元的分布。通过水槽沉积模拟实验研究发现,对碎屑流与辫状河共同控制下冲积扇沉积过程具有如下特点:①在扇体初始雏形形成后,水携沉积物具有向扇面低势部位堆积的趋势;②扇面辫状水道存在两种重要的迁移方式,单一主水道迁移和分叉式次水道迁移方式。单一主水道的迁移是导致扇体辐向前积增大的主要原因,而分叉式次水道迁移方式是扇体展宽的重要机制;③在构造条件相对稳定的情况下,多期扇体具有明显向源退积的特征。在前述研究基础上,探讨了下一步冲积扇的研究方向。     

同生逆断层正牵引构造对高频层序地层结构 及沉积充填的控制作用

本文拟探讨同生逆断层产生的正牵引构造对高频层序结构及沉积充填的控制作用。利用同生逆断层产生的次级构造要素正牵引构造这个视角来揭示构造与沉积的耦合关系具有其独特性与新颖性。在研究区岩芯、测井及地震资料分析的基础上,结合地质分析、构造平衡剖面技术及井震联合等方法对研究区同生逆断层断层要素进行分析,进而提出正牵引构造的特点以及其对高频层序结构和砂体展布的控制作用机制。研究表明:①正牵引构造的发育具有3个特点,即上盘形成局部隆起向上牵引弯曲的背斜;因应力反转形成沿背斜核部非对称分布的正断层束;其发育部位砂体发育程度低。同时,②同生逆断层正牵引构造对高频层序地层结构控制明显,其下盘地层厚度不仅较上盘明显增厚,且上盘地层因强烈的上拱隆升作用容易遭受剥蚀,从而导致平面上自下而上地层遭受削蚀范围逐渐增大的差异削蚀样式;同时,剖面上垂直断裂走向地层呈"厚—薄—厚"的展布样式。地层削蚀形成的局部不整合界面为层序地层研究的关键界面,其可为等时地层格架的建立提供依据。③正牵引构造引起的差异隆起的沉积底形控制了古水系的流动方向,因而决定了砂体的分散和充填样式。垂直同生逆断层走向方向,隆起背斜部位的砂体发育程度低,以砂泥交互和厚层泥岩夹薄层砂等非主力储层为主;与之相反,正牵引构造发育部位的背斜两翼砂体以厚层连片状主力储层占绝对优势。     

同生逆断层对冲积扇沉积构型的控制作用:以准噶尔盆地西北缘三叠系下克拉玛依组为例

以新疆准噶尔盆地西北缘三叠系克拉玛依组冲积扇为例,综合应用岩心、测井、地震资料及邻近露头资料,通过沉积构型及构造-沉积响应分析,探讨挤压型盆地边缘与同生逆断层相关的冲积扇沉积构型特征。研究表明:挤压型盆地边缘冲积扇扇体的形态、规模和组合样式受到同生逆断层组合样式的控制。在多条平行盆地边缘的断层与顺源调节断层组合的条件下,调节断层走滑活动导致物源区溯源剥蚀,扇体呈快速退积而形成薄层条带溯源叠置组合。同时,调节断裂的平移活动会影响物源出口位置的侧向偏移,形成侧向迁移叠置扇体组合;在强烈活动的交叉状同生逆断层组合条件下,则形成多期厚层垂向叠置扇体组合。     

波浪作用下砂质滩坝的沉积过程与沉积模式

受波浪及沿岸流影响,在滨岸地区形成的滩坝砂体是滨海（湖）带发育的主要砂体类型。目前国内外学者对滩坝沉积砂体的认识多来自于现代沉积和油气地质特征,对滩坝砂体的沉积机制和内部结构研究相对较弱。基于沉积水槽实验,采用规则波浪对沙质斜坡滨岸带进行模拟实验,观测波浪作用下滨岸带滩坝形成过程和波浪运动特征,记录波浪作用下滨岸带沙质滩坝在不同浪带平面时空演化规律。实验结果显示:波浪是改造湖岸原有沉积物的关键驱动力,波浪作用下沙质岸滩床面泥砂将发生输移运动,而滩坝是陆湖（海）泥沙在水动力驱动下搬运沉积的结果,水动力的强弱及水流结构引起泥沙在空间上的不均匀输运和分布,进而塑造不同的滩坝形态。与强波浪相关的高水位可以加速滩坝系统的形成并最终形成大规模的滩坝砂;相比之下,与较弱波浪相关的低水位只能略微改变初始沉积物形态。根据不同的沉积物特征可将实验中的滩坝系统分为三类:冲浪带和碎浪带滩坝系统近端部分的大规模厚层坝砂,破浪带和升浪带滩坝系统中部分布广泛的薄滩砂,以及位于滩坝系统中远端的弧形或平行排列的脊状、砂纹坝砂。建立了水槽实验模式下滩坝沉积模式,可用于指导油气勘探开发。     

辫状河三角洲沉积特征与生长演变规律——水槽沉积模拟实验研究

辫状河三角洲是一类常见的沉积体系,也是一类常见的油气储层,其沉积特征、沉积演化过程及内部结构一直受到沉积学研究的关注。为明确辫状河三角洲沉积特征、演化过程及生长演变规律,笔者等通过水槽实验模拟辫状河三角洲在平缓的水下底形上逐步发育的过程,并采用三维激光扫描仪、延时拍照等手段进行精准的沉积地貌监测和定量沉积学分析。研究表明：① 辫状河三角洲沉积演化过程中,三角洲的规模、水流分散样式、沉积体表面地貌特征及沉积物分布样式存在阶段性差异,可据此将实验辫状河三角洲的演化分为3个阶段。② 在最初阶段,辫状河携带沉积物直接入“湖”堆积并形成朵状河口坝,入“湖”水流无明显的水道化特征,随着朵状河口坝逐渐堆积露出水面,三角洲平原初步形成,平原上河道开始分流并导致后续河口坝转变为连续的弧形坝分布于先期沉积体周缘,这一阶段三角洲平均半径快速增加;进入第二阶段后,三角洲平均半径增速减缓,供给河道进入三角洲平原后形成1~2条主干分流河道与多条次级分流河道,并在主干河道河口区形成弧形的前缘朵体;到第三阶段,三角洲平原面积已经较大,其平均半径增速进一步降低,平原上分流河道的分叉性更强、宽度更小,不同分流河道规模接近并可同时将沉积物输送到三角洲前缘多个部位发生沉积,在同一时期形成多个孤立的小规模的前缘朵体。③ 在整个沉积演化过程中,伴随着三角洲规模的逐渐增大,分流河道的宽度逐步减小、流程变长、分流河道数量逐步增加,三角洲前缘沉积由少量弧形的连续分布朵体转变为多个孤立分布的小规模朵体。④ 在第二、三阶段,分流河道表现为多个侵蚀—回填的自旋回演化过程,形成了多套自旋回沉积复合体。⑤ 辫状河三角洲前积层存在自下而上、由近向远表现为沉积连续性逐步减小、叠切规律逐渐复杂的特性。通过水槽实验揭示辫状河三角洲沉积演化过程及内部结构,可为露头解剖与地下储层研究提供参考。     

辫状河三角洲沉积特征与生长演变规律——水槽沉积模拟实验研究

辫状河三角洲是一类常见的沉积体系,也是一类常见的油气储层,其沉积特征、沉积演化过程及内部结构一直受到沉积学研究的关注。为明确辫状河三角洲沉积特征、演化过程及生长演变规律,笔者等通过水槽实验模拟辫状河三角洲在平缓的水下底形上逐步发育的过程,并采用三维激光扫描仪、延时拍照等手段进行精准的沉积地貌监测和定量沉积学分析。研究表明：(1)辫状河三角洲沉积演化过程中,三角洲的规模、水流分散样式、沉积体表面地貌特征及沉积物分布样式存在阶段性差异,可据此将实验辫状河三角洲的演化分为3个阶段。(2)在最初阶段,辫状河携带沉积物直接入“湖”堆积并形成朵状河口坝,入“湖”水流无明显的水道化特征,随着朵状河口坝逐渐堆积露出水面,三角洲平原初步形成,平原上河道开始分流并导致后续河口坝转变为连续的弧形坝分布于先期沉积体周缘,这一阶段三角洲平均半径快速增加;进入第二阶段后,三角洲平均半径增速减缓,供给河道进入三角洲平原后形成1～2条主干分流河道与多条次级分流河道,并在主干河道河口区形成弧形的前缘朵体;到第三阶段,三角洲平原面积已经较大,其平均半径增速进一步降低,平原上分流河道的分叉性更强、宽度更小,不同分流河道规模...     

阵发性洪水条件下辫状河型冲积扇构型研究:以准噶尔盆地西北缘现代白杨河冲积扇为例*

白杨河冲积扇是由阵发性洪水期的碎屑流沉积物与间洪期辫状河沉积物组成的复合型冲积扇,其构型与碎屑流扇的构型和河流型扇的构型有很大的不同。本研究选取准噶尔盆地西北缘干旱气候下发育的现代白杨河冲积扇作为解剖实例,对103个天然剖面和9个人工大型探槽进行了详细测量,在沉积微相及不同级别的沉积构型的观测和分析的基础上,分析了阵发性洪水条件下间歇性辫状河型冲积扇体的地貌单元的演化过程和沉积构型特征,研究不同流态的阵发性洪水条件下各种建造和改造机制,明确受阵发性洪水控制的间歇性辫状河型冲积扇的沉积特征,建立了其沉积构型模式。认为: 在洪水期,阵发性洪流(碎屑流)形成席状化的片流(或片洪)沉积,在洪退期,随着洪水强度的减弱,又转变为辫流沉积,而在间洪期,仍有持续的辫状流体(牵引流)在限制性的水道中流动,并对洪水期的碎屑流沉积物进行改造,形成了限制性的(条带状的)辫状河道沉积,2个时期的沉积物在时空上频繁叠置,形成了一种更加复杂的沉积构型。该模式对油田地下冲积扇砂砾储集层的成因识别、预测及对比具有一定的参考价值。     

Simulation experiment of sedimentary process and sedimentary architecture of alluvial fan under the control of normal faults

Normal fault structures are widely developed in basins and orogenic belts,which control the accommodation space and the distribution of sediments and thus affecting the morphology of alluvial fans. A flume tank experiment was carried to simulate and clarify the control of normal faults on the sedimentary process and internal architecture of alluvial fans.The results show that the large amount of sediments carried by debris flow tend to be unloaded near the hanging wall of faults and are subsequently reworked by traction current,which result in a triangular distributary gravel bar grows vertically on fault plane with the tip pointing to the source area. When the hydrodynamic force is strong,debris flow goes across distributary gravel bar and forms over-bar lobe at the tail of the distributary gravel bar. When the hydrodynamic force is weak,debris flow forms fault plane-dominated lobe along fault plane and is located on both sides of the distributary gravel bar. Under the control of normal faults and the barrier of distributary gravel bar,the unloading process of sediments varies greatly at different positions on the surface of alluvial fan. The particle size varies greatly among different facies,with coarsest grains developed on the fans of hanging wall,finer grained on over-bar lobe and finest sediments on fault plane-dominated lobe. The development process of alluvial fan can be divided into three stages,according to the sandbody thickness and fault throw of distributary gravel bar. The fault throw also affects the sedimentary architecture of alluvial fan,with larger the fault throw generating larger the accommodation space of hanging wall,longer development time of distributary gravel bar and more complex of the superposition pattern of the sand bodies inside the fan. The internal architecture of alluvial fan that is controlled by normal faults includes longitudinal sandbar,distributary gravel bar and debris flow lobe in the profile vertical perpendicular to the sediment source direction from the proximal to the distal end. Along sediment longitudinal section,composite channel,superimposed distributary gravel bar complex and superimposed bodies of multi-phased lobes are dominant facies.     

Linking submarine channel–levee facies and architecture to flow structure of turbidity currents: insights from flume tank experiments

Submarine leveed channels are sculpted by turbidity currents that are commonly highly stratified. Both the concentration and the grain size decrease upward in the flow, and this is a fundamental factor that affects the location and grain size of deposits around a channel. This study presents laboratory experiments that link the morphological evolution of a progressively developing leveed channel to the suspended sediment structure of the turbidity currents. Previously, it was difficult to link turbidity current structure to channel–levee development because observations from natural systems were limited to the depositional products while experiments did not show realistic morphodynamics due to scaling issues related to the sediment transport. This study uses a novel experimental approach to overcome scaling issues, which results in channel inception and evolution on an initially featureless slope. Depth of the channel increased continuously as a result of levee aggradation combined with varying rates of channel floor aggradation and degradation. The resulting levees are fining upward and the grain‐size trend in the levee matches the upward decrease in grain size in the flow. It is shown that such deposit trends can result from internal channel dynamics and do not have to reflect upstream forcing. The suspended sediment structure can also be linked to the lateral transition from sediment bypass in the channel thalweg to sediment deposition on the levees. The transition occurs because the sediment concentration is below the flow capacity in the channel thalweg, while higher up on the channel walls the concentration exceeds capacity resulting in deposition of the inner levee. Thus, a framework is provided to predict the growth pattern and facies of a levee from the suspended sediment structure in a turbidity current.     

Morphodynamics and sedimentary structures of bedforms under supercritical‐flow conditions: New insights from flume experiments

Supercritical‐flow phenomena are fairly common in modern sedimentary environments, yet their recognition and analysis remain difficult in the stratigraphic record. This fact is commonly ascribed to the poor preservation potential of deposits from high‐energy supercritical flows. However, the number of flume data sets on supercritical‐flow dynamics and sedimentary structures is very limited in comparison with available data for subcritical flows, which hampers the recognition and interpretation of such deposits. The results of systematic flume experiments spanning a broad range of supercritical‐flow bedforms (antidunes, chutes‐and‐pools and cyclic steps) developed in mobile sand beds of variable grain sizes are presented. Flow character and related bedform patterns are constrained through time‐series measurements of bed configurations, flow depths, flow velocities and Froude numbers. The results allow the refinement and extension of some widely used bedform stability diagrams in the supercritical‐flow domain, clarifying in particular the morphodynamic relations between antidunes and cyclic steps. The onset of antidunes is controlled by flows exceeding a threshold Froude number. The transition from antidunes to cyclic steps in fine to medium‐grained sand occurs at a threshold mobility parameter. Sedimentary structures associated with supercritical bedforms developed under variable aggradation rates are revealed by means of combining flume results and synthetic stratigraphy. The sedimentary structures are compared with examples from field and other flume studies. Aggradation rate is seen to exert an important control on the geometry of supercritical‐flow structures and should be considered when identifying supercritical bedforms in the sedimentary record.     

The effects of fluctuating base level on the structure of alluvial fan and associated fan delta deposits: an example from the Tertiary of the Betic Cordillera, Spain

The Villanueva Complex is a lacustrine alluvial fan - fan delta system which accumulated on the northern margin of the Guadix Basin during the Pliocene. Five transitional zones can be distinguished from proximal to distal areas: proximal alluvial fan, mid-fan, fan fringe (transition zone), proximal fan delta and distal fan delta (lacustrine). This paper focuses on sedimentation in the fan fringe and the proximal fan delta areas, where the effects of fluctuations in the base level (lacustrine level) are more easily observed. The stratigraphical succession is here characterized by an alternation of fine lacustrine sediments (mudstones and siltstones) and gravels. The gravels appear as isolated channels, stacked channels, lenses and sheets. The isolated channels, which have a V-shaped profile and better developed wings towards the top, appear in the fan fringe zone and in the fan delta. The stacked channels originate in the fan fringe zone and evolve laterally and distally to isolated channels. The lenticular gravel bodies (lenses) are well represented throughout the fan delta and present small channels at the base, indicating a radial flow pattern. Finally, the sheets are characteristic of the fan fringe zone. The first episodes of channel incision occurred at lowstand lake level. The channels and lenses developed in rising lake level conditions, and sheet deposit took place at highstand lake level. Although the final form of the lithosome was heavily controlled by the fluctuations in lake level, it depended on the relative proportions of gravel and silt sedimentation. The gravel-siltstone interface therefore represents an equilibrium surface between the proportions of sedimentation of these lithologies. The bodies mentioned above are organized in coarsening and thickening upwards sequences tens of metres thick, in which a distal to proximal evolution can be observed from isolated channels to lenses or from stacked channels to sheets. The building and thickness of these sequences were controlled by fluctuations in the lake level. An initial fall in base level caused lengthening of the channels and entrenchment from distal to proximal areas, and a continuous increase in supply due to erosion in the drainage basin installed on the subaerial fan. When the lake level rose, lobes were formed at the channel endings and overbank processes were made possible, thus generating radial channels, whose levees were formed by amalgamation with the levees of the main lens channels. At the same time, sheets were formed in proximal areas, where the available amount of sediment was greater.     

The formation and evolution of a coastal alluvial fan in eastern Taiwan caused by rainfall-induced landslides

The formation and evolution of a coastal fan in eastern Taiwan associated with a sequence of rainfall-induced landslides during the 2009–2013 period are explored in this study. The evolution of these landslides is mainly attributed to the head-cutting process initiated by Typhoon Parma in October 2009. During the attack of Typhoon Megi in October, 2010, a subaerial coastal fan with a surface slope of 8.9° was formed after the mobilization of the rainfall-induced landslides. The geomorphic features both in the steep gully and on the coastal fan were categorized as the sequence of granular debris flows and sheet floods. Severe fan toe erosion occurred thereafter due to the wind-wave forcing. Even if the variations of both the cumulative rainfalls and the drainage areas are one or two orders of magnitude among devastating fan-forming landslides worldwide, the mean annual precipitation and the basin ruggedness index (Melton ratio) are effective indicators to normalize the rainfall threshold and to characterize the fan surface slope, respectively. Severe catastrophic landslides generally occur when the normalized cumulative rainfalls with respect to mean annual precipitation are greater than 0.1. The fan slope generally increases with the increasing Melton ratio for the catchment. Uchiogi’s empirical model is applicable for predicting the rainfall-induced area ratio of newly generated landslides. In this case study, the relationship of the fan area to the total landslide area follows a linear regressive curve when the ratio of landslide area with respect to the drainage area exceeds 0.0056.     

Facies and depositional model of alluvial fan dominated by episodic flood events in arid conditions: An example from the Quaternary Poplar Fan,north-western China

Alluvial fans are usually constructed through episodic flood events. Despite the significance of these ephemeral floods on the morphodynamics of alluvial fans, depositional responses to the variations in flood conditions are still poorly documented. This greatly limits the ability to interpret ancient sedimentary successions of fans and the associated flood hydrodynamics. The Quaternary Poplar Fan from endorheic Heshituoluogai Basin provides an optimal case for addressing this issue. Based on the variations in facies associations and flood conditions, three depositional stages – namely; lobe building stage, channel building stage and the abandonment stage – are identified. During the lobe building stage the Poplar Fan is predominately constructed through incised channel flood, sheetflood and unconfined streamflood, with coeval development of distal surficial ephemeral ponds. The channel building stage is characterized by the development of gravelly braided rivers. However, only scour pool fill deposits are preferentially preserved in the Poplar Fan. During the abandonment stage, erosional lags and aeolian sands randomly occur throughout the fan, while gully deposits can only be found in the distal fan. The distinctive facies architecture of the Poplar Fan is likely to be the result of periodicity of climate fluctuations between wetter and drier conditions during the Late Pleistocene to Holocene. The ephemeral floods formed under wetter conditions usually show high discharge and sediment concentrations which facilitate the lobe building processes. During the drier periods, only gravelly braided rivers can be developed through ephemeral floods as the intensity and frequency in precipitation, discharge and sediment concentrations of the flood flows significantly decrease. The abandonment stage of the fan may occur between recurring flood episodes or during the driest periods. Furthermore, the long-term (10⁵ to 10⁶ year) geomorphic evolution of the Poplar Fan shows the influence of tectonic activities. The ongoing thrust uplift tectonic activities have caused destruction of the fan but can also facilitate the fan-head trench/incision of the fan, which in turn facilitate the progradation of the fan. This study proposes a new depositional model for alluvial fans constructed through episodic flood events, which shows the character of both sheet-flood dominated and stream-flow dominated end members of alluvial fans. These findings supplement the understanding of the variability of the alluvial fans and provide means to characterize rock record of alluvial fans and their associated flood and climate conditions.     

Free convective controls on sequestration of salts into low-permeability strata: insights from sand tank laboratory experiments and numerical modelling

Using sand tank experiments and numerical models, local-scale solute-transport processes associated with free convection in both the region surrounding as well as within discrete low-permeability strata are explored. Different permeability geometries and contrasts between high- and low-permeability regions are tested. Results show that two free convective processes occur at different spatial and temporal scales. In the high-permeability region, salinisation was rapid and occurred predominantly by free convective flow around the low-permeability blocks (interlayer convection). A free convection flow field also became concurrently established within the low-permeability lenses (intralayer convection). It was found that upward vertical flow created by the large-scale interlayer free-convective flow field in the high-permeability region retards salinisation of the lenses as buoyant freshwater displacements oppose the downward penetration of dissolved salts. Salinisation of the low-permeability structures eventually takes place from below as saltwater is dragged upwards. This bottom up convective salinisation process of low permeability strata has not been reported in previous literature. These results demonstrate that variable-density sequestration of solutes driven by a source resident above the low-permeability layer is a complicated function of the geometry of the permeability distribution and the permeability contrast between low- and high-permeability regions.     

The Maesan fan delta, Miocene Pohang Basin, SE Korea: architecture and depositional processes of a high-gradient fan-delta-fed slope system

The Maesan fan-delta-fed slope system in the Miocene Pohang Basin occurs between two Gilbert-type fan deltas. Detailed analysis of sedimentary facies and bed geometry reveals that the sequence is represented by 13 sedimentary facies. These facies can be organized into three facies associations, representing distinct depositional environments: alluvial fan (facies association I), steep-faced slope (facies association II), and basin plain (facies association III). Subaerial debris flows and dense, inertia-dominated currents were transformed into subaqueous sediment gravity flows in steep-faced slope environments. Further downslope, these flows were channelized and formed lobate conglomerate and sandstone bodies at the terminal edge of the channels (or chutes). Interchannel and interlobe areas were dominated by homogeneous mudstone and muddy sandstone, deposited by suspension settling of fine-grained materials. Part of the steep-faced slope deposits experienced large-scale slides and slumps. The chutes/channels, lobes and splays on the steep-faced slope of the Maesan system are similar to those in modern subaqueous coarse-grained fan-delta systems.