Characteristics and dynamics of the Ganqiuchi rock avalanche triggered by a paleo-earthquake in the Northern Qinling Mountains

Analyzing large prehistoric rock avalanches provides significant data for evaluating the disaster posed by these relatively infrequent but destructive geological events. This paper attempts to study the characteristics and dynamics of the Ganqiuchi granitic rock avalanche, in the middle of the northern margin of Qinling Mountains, 30 km to the south of Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, China. In plane view, this rock avalanche is characterized by source area, accumulation area and dammed lake area. Based on previous studies, historical records and regional geological data, the major trigger of the Ganqiuchi rock avalanche is considered to be a strong paleo-earthquake with tremendous energy. The in situ deposit block size distributions of the intact rock mass and the debris deposits are presented and analyzed by using a simple model for estimating the number of fragmentation cycles that the blocks underwent. The results show that the primary controlling factor of the fragmentation process is the pre-existing fractures, and there is a relationship between the potential energy and the fragmentation energy: the latter is approximately 20% of the former. Based on the dynamic discrete element technique, the study proposes a four-stage model for the dynamic course of the Ganqiuchi rock avalanche:(1) failing;(2) highspeed sliding;(3) collision with obstacles;(4) decelerated sliding, which has implication for hazard assessment of the potential rock avalanches in China and other countries with similar geological setting.     

滑坡堰塞坝堆积形态影响因素离散元分析

滑坡是形成堰塞坝的最主要原因,在地震、降雨、冰雪融水等作用下均可形成滑坡堰塞坝,而滑坡堰塞坝的堆积形态、范围等对评价堰塞坝的稳定性有着重要的影响。通过离散元方法(DEM),系统分析了三维条件下滑动距离、滑面出口宽度、滑面倾角、河床倾角、河谷形状对堰塞坝堆积形态的影响。研究结果表明：滑动距离和出口宽度对坝体高度影响最大;随出口宽度和坡面倾角的增加,坝长和坝宽分别呈线性增大和减小趋势;滑动距离可以有效控制滑体速度,进而影响堆积角大小;河床倾角主要影响坝长;对坝高、坝长、上下游绝对倾角正切值和堆积角正切值进行回归分析表明,数学模型契合程度高,说明其形态可以预测;引入2个参数λ和χ,对堰塞坝堆积特征进行了描述;河谷形状的影响主要体现在随着河谷底部宽度的增大,滑体爬高爬坡能力增强。研究成果对根据实际地形预测滑坡堰塞坝堆积形态进而评估坝体的安全性具有重要意义,可以为进一步开展堰塞湖溃决研究提供一定的参考。     

An Assessment and Identification of Avalanche Hazard Sites in Uri Sector and its Surroundings on Himalayan Mountain

Avalanches are one of the most natural hazard in the mountain areas and therefore, identification of avalanche hazard is necessary for planning future development activities. The study area falls under the international boundary region which generally covered by the snow(38%) on high altitude regions of the western part of Himalayas. Avalanches are triggered in study area during snowfall resulting in loss of human life, property and moreover the transportation and communication affected by the debris which ultimately delays the relief measures. Therefore in this study three major causative parameters i.e terrain, ground cover and meteorological have been incorporated for the identification of avalanche hazard zones(AHZ) by integrating Analytical Hierarchical Process(AHP) method in Geographical Information System(GIS). In the first part of study, avalanche sites have been identified by the criteria related to terrain(slope, aspect and curvature) and ground cover. Weights and ratings to these causative factors and their cumulative effects have been assigned on the basis of experience and knowledge of field. In the second part of the study, single point interpolation and Inverse Distance Weighted(IDW) method has been employed as only one weather station falls in study area. Accordingly, it has been performed to generate the meteorological parameter maps(viz. air temperature and relative humidity) from the field observatories and Automatic Weather Stations(AWS) located at Baaj OP in Uri sector. Finally, the meteorological parameter maps were superimposed on the terrain-based avalanche hazard thematic layers to identify the dynamic avalanche hazard sites. Conventional weighted approach and Analytical Hierarchical Process(AHP) method have been implemented for the identification of AHZ that shows approximately 55% area under maximum hazard zone. Further, the results were validated by overlapping the existing registered avalanche sites. The sites were identified through field survey and avalanche data card followed by its delineation from the toposheet(1:50,000 scale). Interestingly study found that 28% area under moderate and maximum AHZ correlated well with registered avalanche sites when they were overlapped. The accuracy for such works can be increased by field survey under favorable weather condition and by adding data from more number of AWS for predicting avalanche hazards in mountainous regions.     

Mechanical and numerical models for sea ice dynamics on small-meso scale

On small-meso scale, the sea ice dynamic characteristics are quite different from that on large scale. To model the sea ice dynamics on small-meso scale, a new elastic-viscous-plastic （EVP） constitutive model and a hybrid Lagrangian- Eulerian （HLE） numerical method are developed based on continuum theory. While a modified discrete element model （DEM） is introduced to model the ice cover at discrete state. With the EVP constitutive model, the numerical simulation for ice ridging in an idealized rectangular basin is carried out and the results are comparable with the analytical solution of jam theory. Adopting the HLE numerical model, the sea ice dynamic process is simulated in a vortex wind field. The furthering application of DEM is discussed in details for modeling the discrete distribution of sea ice. With this study, the mechanical and numerical models for sea ice dynamics can be improved with high precision and computational efficiency.     

Numerical Modelling for Dynamic Instability Process of Submarine Soft Clay Slopes Under Seismic Loading

Marine geological disasters occurred frequently in the deep-water slope area of the northern South China Sea, especially submarine landslides, which caused serious damage to marine facilities. The cyclic elastoplastic model that can describe the cyclic stress-strain response characteristic for soft clay, is embedded into the coupled Eulerian-Lagrangian(CEL) algorithm of ABAQUS by means of subroutine interface technology. On the basis of CEL technique and undrained cyclic elastoplastic model, a method for analyzing the dynamic instability process of marine slopes under the action of earthquake load is developed. The rationality for cyclic elastoplastic constitutive model is validated by comparing its calculated results with those of von Mises model built in Abaqus. The dynamic instability process of slopes under different conditions are analyzed. The results indicate that the deformation accumulation of soft clay have a significant effect on the dynamic instability process of submarine slopes under earthquake loading. The cumulative deformation is taken into our model and this makes the calculated final deformation of the slope under earthquake load larger than the results of conventional numerical method. When different contact conditions are used for analysis, the smaller the friction coefficient is, the larger the deformation of slopes will be. A numerical analysis method that can both reflect the dynamic properties of soft clay and display the dynamic instability process of submarine landslide is proposed, which could visually predict the topographies of the previous and post failure for submarine slope.     

数字滑坡与数字仿真应用研究

在 GIS支持下建立数字滑坡 ,利用其空间分析、立体显示能力在三维空间中进行滑坡稳定性分析、定量动态计算滑坡稳定性系数 ,确定滑坡滑动方向 ;研究滑坡启动机制和滑坡运动规律。建立滑坡方向稳定系数概念 ,完成了在三维空间里计算滑坡稳定系数和确定滑坡滑动方向的精确定量方法研究 :完成滑坡启动机制和滑坡运动规律的数字化、可视化三维动态研究。在此基础上建立相应的数学模型对滑坡进行 :静止-运动-停止全过程的三维数字化、可视化动态研究与数字仿真、模拟。最终完成了在 GIS支持下的数字滑坡三维动态研究与数字仿真。     

The starting mechanism and movement process of the coseismic rockslide: A case study of the Laoyingyan rockslide induced by the “5.12” Wenchuan earthquake

The"5.12"Wenchuan earthquake in 2008 triggered a large number of co-seismic landslides.The rear boundary or cracks of co-seismic landslide are generally located at the steep free surface of thin or thick mountains.Dynamic process of this kind of landslides could be divided into two parts:the seismic dynamic response of the slope and the movement process of rock mass.Taking the Laoyingyan rockslide as an example,the amplification effect was studied by single-degree-of-freedom system analysis method.Besides,the dynamic process of landslide under seismic loading was simulated by the finite difference method(FDM)and discrete element method(DEM).The amplification coefficient of the rockslide to seismic wave is 1.25.The results show that the critical sliding surface of the Laoyingyan rockslide was formed at the 23 th seconds under the action of seismic wave.At the same time,tension failure occurred at the rear edge of the sliding mass and shear failure occurred at the front edge.The maximum displacement was 0.81 m and the initial velocity was 2.78 m/s.During the initiation process of the rockslide,the rock mass firstly broke down along the joints which are along the dip of the rock stratum,and then collapsed bodily along the secondary structural planes.In the process of movement,the maximum velocity of rock mass was 38.24 m/s.After that,the rock mass underwent multiple collisions,including contact,deceleration to 0 and speed recovery after rebound.Finally,due to the constant loss of energy,the rocks stopped and accumulated loosely at the foot of the slope.The longest distance of movement was about 494 m.Besides,the smaller the damping ratio,the farther the rock mass moved.Compared with the results without considering the amplification factor,the movement distance of landslide by considering the amplification factor was more accurate.The study of the Laoyingyan rockslide is helpful to strengthen our field identification of potential co-seismic rockslides.At the same time,understanding its movement and accumulation process can help us better predict the hazard scope of the co-seismic rockslides,and provide a reference for the design of treatment projects.     

Landslide stability for Shuitianba in the Three Gorges area

According to the data of preliminary survey, the authors established a landslide geological model,on the basis of analyses on the sensitivity of landslide, tried to simulate and calculate the landslide stability of Shuitianba with the method of transfer coefficient when it is under different strength parameters, and study the landslide mechanism. The results show that it is sensitive to the effects of shear strength parameters of sliding zone and groundwater level on landslide stability safety coefficient, which provides reliable basis for calculation of landslide stability.     

Building vulnerability evaluation in landslide deformation phase

Building vulnerability evaluation is important in the risk assessment on earthquake and flood hazards. But for landslide hazard, it is also a very important part for the people in buildings. Most discussions or researches about building vulnerability are for landslide failure, few for landslide in deformation phase. For this objective, this paper discussed about building vulnerability evaluation using Zhaoshuling landslide as an example Zhaoshuling landslide named located in the Three Gorges Reservoir Area, China. After a field survey on the geological condition of landslide, detailed field investigation on the buildings’ location and structure is carried out. To get landslide surface deformation, numerical simulation method is used under the combining condition of water fluctuation and rainfall. Then building deformation and probable damage degree is analyzed according to landslide surface deformation and the relative theory in mining. Based on the national standard building damage classification system, the vulnerability of all the buildings on the landslide is semi-quantitatively evaluated.     

Dynamic process simulation with a Savage-Hutter type model for the intrusion of landslide into river

Natural damming of rivers by mass movements is a very common and potentially dangerous phenomena which has been documented all over the world. In this paper, a two-layer model of Savage-Hutter type is presented to simulate the dynamic procedure for the intrusion of landslide into rivers. The two-layer shallow water system is derived by depth averaging the incompressible Navier-Stokes equations with the hydrostatic assumption. A high order accuracy scheme based on the finite volume method is proposed to solve the presented model equations. Several numerical tests are performed to verify the realiability and feasibility of the proposed model. The numerical results indicate that the proposed method can be competent for simulating the dynamic process of landslide intrusion into the river. The interaction effect between both layers has a significant impact on the landslide movement, water fluctuation and wave propagation.     

青海省石灰沟地区水系沉积物测量地球化学特征及找矿预测

通过在青海省都兰县石灰沟地区开展的1:50 000水系沉积物测量工作，运用元素的变化系数、元素富集离散特征、叠加系数对石灰沟地区水系沉积物测量的10种微量元素进行地球化学统计分析，论述了10种微量元素的成矿潜力，得出Au、Cu、Pb、Zn这4种微量元素具有较大的成矿潜力，并通过相关分析、因子分析确立了测区内元素组合特征，共划分了3组成矿元素组合（Ag-Cu-Pb-Zn，Au-As-Sb，W-Bi-Hg）。通过衬值异常法圈定组合异常显示:研究区组合异常明显，异常套合较好。最后，根据组合衬值异常套合结果，在研究区优选了3处金铜铅锌多金属找矿靶区（A，B，C）。      

Failure mechanism and stability analysis of the Zhenggang landslide in Yunnan Province of China using 3D particle flow code simulation

Based on the principle of 3D particle flow code, a numerical landslide run-out model is presented to simulate the failure process of the Zhenggang landslide (in southwestern China) under the effect of water after a rainfall. The relationship between the micro-mechanical parameters and the macro-shear strength of the grain material is determined through numerical calibrations. Then the rainfall effect is considered in numerical simulations and rain-induced sliding processes are performed, which help us to discuss the mechanism of deformation and failure of this landslide together with field observations. It shows the Zhenggang landslide would most likely be activated in Zone I and would gain momentum in Zone II. In order to prevent the potential disaster, a tailing dam is advised to be designed about 175 m downstream from the current landslide boundary of Zone II. Verified by field observations, the presented landslide model can reflect the failure mechanism after rainfall. It can also provide a method to predict the potential disaster and draft disaster prevention measures.     

降雨与开挖作用下黄土滑坡失稳过程分析:以关中地区长武县杨厂村老庙滑坡为例

降雨入渗和人工开挖是诱发黄土滑坡的重要因素,为了研究在这2种诱因作用下关中地区黄土滑坡失稳过程及其对稳定性的影响,以陕西省长武县杨厂村老庙滑坡为研究对象,通过现场调查、地质测绘和钻孔勘探,查明了该滑坡变形特征,定性分析了滑坡变形演变过程;基于滑坡变形前15 d内日降雨量实测值,采用有限元软件,对坡脚开挖后连续降雨作用下滑坡形成过程进行了仿真模拟;基于强度折减法对该滑坡稳定性变化规律进行了研究。结果表明：(1)关中地区特殊的地层结构是滑坡变形的内因,降雨是最主要的诱发因素;(2)滑坡失稳演化过程表现为：坡体处于蠕滑状态,坡脚开挖后,坡体前缘失稳,牵引中后缘坡体向下错动而产生张拉裂缝,在降雨作用下,雨水沿裂缝渗入坡体深部,滑坡中部岩土体浸水后抗剪强度降低,从而导致黄土层与红黏土层接触面饱水形成贯通滑带,诱发深层滑坡;(3)滑坡开挖后较初始状态,稳定性系数降幅为0.102,此后受连续降雨影响,稳定性系数在前10 d以平均0.010/d的速率缓慢下降,第10～13 d以0.034/d的速率快速下降至最低,第13 d以后开始回升。研究结果可以为该类滑坡防治提供有效依据。     

隧道围岩变形监测反演分析及稳定性研究

针对有限元方法模拟隧道开挖过程受参数取值影响导致精度降低问题,提出利用BP神经网络和数值模拟方法来对隧道围岩力学参数进行反演分析。对比实测值与模拟值,证明了反演参数的可靠性,并得到隧道的最大最小主应力和位移变化值;利用强度折减法,通过数值模拟计算相应的拱顶沉降值,通过离散点拟合来求得隧道围岩的自稳系数,分析隧道围岩的稳定性。     

基于物理模型试验的滑坡-抗滑桩位移场变化特征

滑坡-抗滑桩体系演化机理是滑坡灾害防治的重要理论基础,其中桩土相互作用是滑坡-抗滑桩体系中的关键,而位移场是相互作用的重要表征之一,因此,对滑坡-抗滑桩体系位移场的研究具有十分重要的工程意义。以物理模型试验为手段,基于三峡库区堆积层滑坡工程地质特征,建立大型物理试验模型,通过逐级施加荷载来模拟滑坡后缘推力,采用高速摄像机及粒子图像测速技术等获取滑坡坡表与桩顶位移数据,定量分析了体系位移场变化特征。试验结果显示:在滑坡-抗滑桩体系演化过程中,坡表位移场变化呈现出很好的规律性,这为桩土相互作用研究机理起到了一定的推动作用。      

基于临界状态的边坡渐进破坏力学模型分析及应用

边坡条分法物理意义是以强度折减表征材料峰值强度的下降程度。以不平衡推力部分强度折减法为例,推广传统假设,应用理想弹塑性模型和全过程剪应力-应变模型,在峰值剪应力和峰值应变相等条件下,模拟边坡的渐进破坏过程;提出了临界状态决定法,随着临界状态逐步移动,边坡不平衡力和驱动力越来越大,抗滑力越来越小,直至整体处于破坏状态。以湖北省恩施州稻池村边坡为例,以3种数值(部分强度折减、理想弹塑性和全过程剪应力-应变本构)模型揭示边坡渐进破坏过程中各参量变化特征。结果表明:3种数值条块法均能描述稻池村边坡渐进破坏过程,基于条分法和理想弹塑性模型部分强度折减系数大于全过程剪应力-应变本构模型稳定系数。      

Dynamic process analysis of the Niumiangou landslide triggered by the Wenchuan earthquake using the finite difference method and a modified discontinuous deformation analysis

The Niumiangou landslide was the largest landslide triggered by the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, which was significantly affected by the amplification effect of seismic acceleration. The ringshear experiments indicated that the materials in the source area of the Niumiangou landslide were subjected to friction degradation under a big shear displacement, which may result in rapid movement of the landslide. In order to better understand the landslide movement and study the effect of the friction degradation on movement mechanisms, the dynamic process of Niumiangou landslide was simulated with a new numerical method, which combines the finite difference method(FDM) and the discontinuous deformation analysis(DDA). First, the FDM was used to study the initiation time, amplification effect and velocity of the landslide. Afterwards, these initiation velocities were applied to the blocks in the DDA model by corresponding coordination in the FDM model. A displacementdependent friction model of the sliding surface was incorporated into DDA code to further understand the kinetic behavior of the landslide. The results show that the displacement-dependent friction strongly decreases the friction coefficient of sliding surface under a big displacement, which can obviously promote the run-out and velocity of landslide. The model output well matches the topographic map formed by the landslide. This implies that the proposed model can be applied to the simulation of earthquake-induced landslides with amplification effect, and the friction degradation model is important to clarify the movement mechanism of high-speed and long-distance landslides.     

Erosion and transport mechanisms of mine waste along gullies

Mine waste debris flows continue to occur in China, and the disaster prevention and mitigation of these flows faces severe challenges since the mechanisms determining erosion and transport of mine waste along gullies are not yet fully understood. The erosion and delivery process of mine waste heaps was reproduced through flume experiments with the method based on field survey data of the Daxicha mine waste debris flow gully in the Xiaoqinling gold mining area. The results showed that the erosion and movement of mine wastes could be divided into three modes: minimal sediment movement, sediment sorting and delivery, and a large amount of sediment transfer. Moreover, there was an obvious amplification effect on peak discharge along with the formation and failure of temporary landslide dams during the erosion process. The correlation between the coefficient of peak discharge amplification and three dimensionless influencing factors, flume gradient, dimensionless volume, and dimensionless particle size, were comprehensively analyzed. An empirical formula for the coefficient of peak discharge amplification was proposed and verified based on 16 sets of experimental data. These preliminary results can provide a scientific reference for future research on disaster prevention and mitigation of mine waste debris flows.     

浙江省玄武岩台地稳定性评价:以嵊州市地雅园滑坡为例

玄武岩台地型滑坡是一种特殊的滑坡类型，此前对其稳定性的研究较少。以嵊州市地雅园滑坡为研究对象，采用三维数值模拟的方法进行了稳定性分析评价，首先基于详细的地质资料采用三维模拟软件进行了建模；然后基于P-Ⅲ型分布曲线确定了降雨重现期，分别采用岩土软件MIDAS进行了滑坡稳定性模拟与三维运动模拟平台DAN3D软件进行了滑坡影响范围计算；最后对影响地雅园滑坡稳定性的因子进行了敏感性分析。结果表明:不同降雨强度对地雅园滑坡稳定性的影响不同，最不利工况为百年一遇降雨工况，此时滑坡稳定性系数为0.946，破坏概率为65.25%，影响范围最大增加了36.83%；内摩擦角和降雨是影响地雅园滑坡稳定性的主要因子。分析原因认为玄武岩台地型滑坡稳定性主要与硅藻土滑带、节理裂隙面的发育情况、降雨入渗滞后性有明显的相关性。本研究成果可为同类滑坡稳定性评价提供参考依据。      

基于物理力学机制的滑坡数值预报模式: 综述、挑战与机遇

滑坡预测预报是地质灾害防治领域长期以来备受关注的前沿科学问题。当前的研究框架专注于滑坡的变形行为特征与外动力因素, 面临着普适性不强与预报精准度不高的双重瓶颈问题。基于目前研究现状, 系统梳理了滑带流变力学行为与强度弱化效应的内涵, 阐述了滑坡渐进破坏演化机制, 总结了滑坡预测预报模型所包含的类型, 并介绍了其中的典型模型, 指出当前研究主要存在如下问题: ①滑坡演化物理力学模型尚需扩展; ②预测预报模型未能充分结合滑坡演化过程和物理力学模型; ③物理力学模型预测与多场监测数据间的兼容性问题未能实际解决。针对上述问题, 阐述了基于物理力学过程的滑坡预测预报所面临的挑战, 并立足多学科融合与交叉, 提出了开展滑坡预测预报研究的新思路。新思路要求从滑坡滑带介质特性与流变力学行为出发, 建立滑坡演化过程物理力学模型, 紧密结合实时多场监测数据, 建立滑坡数值预报模式, 实现滑坡物理力学过程实时动态更新, 以期实现理论与技术的突破。