Ecological consequences of land use change: Forest structure and regeneration across the forest-grassland ecotone in mountain pastures in Nepal

The ecotone, the spatial transition zone between two vegetation communities, is claimed to have more species than the adjoining communities. However, empirical studies do not always confirm higher richness at the ecotone. The ecotone position and structure are dynamic over time and space and it is driven by the changes in climate, land use or their interaction. In this context, we assessed the forest- grassland ecotone of temperate mountains in central Nepal by i） comparing species composition and richness across the ecotone, ii） analyzing if the forestgrassland ecotone is shifting towards the grassland center by colonizing them with trees, and iii） discussing the consequence of changed disturbance regime in the dynamics of this ecotone and the surrounding grasslands. We analyzed vegetation data sampled from belt transects laid across the forest- grassland ecotone in semi-natural grassland patches. Vegetation data consisting of species richness and composition, and size structure and regeneration of the two most dominant tree species, namely Rhododendron arboreum and Abies spectabilis, from the transects, were used to analyze the trend of the forest-grassland ecotone. Forest and grasslands were different in terms of floristic composition and diversity. Vascular plant speciesrichness linearly increased while moving from forest interior to grassland center. Spatial pattern of tree size structure and regeneration infers that forest boundary is advancing towards the grasslands at the expense of the grassland area, and tree establishment in the grasslands is part of a suceessional process. Temporally, tree establishment in grasslands started following the gradual decline in disturbance. We argue that local processes in terms of changed land use may best explain the phenomenon of ecotone shift and consequent forest expansion in these grasslands. We underpin the need for further research on the mechanism, rate and spatial extent of ecotone shift by using advaneed tools to understand the process indepth.     

Influence of vegetation cover and other sources of variability on sediment and runoff response in a burned forest in South Korea

Post-fire field measurements of sediment and run off yield were undertaken in natural rainfall event-basis during five rainy months in Korea on a total of 15 small plots: four replica burned unseeded plots, six replica burned seeded plots, and five replica unburned plots. The main aim was to evaluate the effects of vegetation recovery and spatial distribution patterns on sediment and runoff response between and within the treatment replica erosion plots. Six-years after the wildfire, total sediment and runoff yield in the burned unseeded plots with 20%-30% vegetation cover was still 120.8 and 20.6 times higher than in the unburned treatment plots with 100% ground cover, 8.3 and 6.7 times higher than in the burned seeded plots with 70%-80% vegetation cover, while only 1.6 and 2.0 times higher than in the burned seeded plots with 50%-60% vegetation cover, respectively. The differences in sediment and runoff yield between the treatment plots was proportional to total vegetation cover, distance of bare soil to vegetation cover, magnitude of rainfall characteristics and changes in soil properties, but not slope gradient. Three out of the six within-treatment pairs of two replica plots showed large differences in sediment and runoff yield of up to 6.0 and 4.2 times and mean CV of up to 99.1% and 62.2%, respectively. This was due to differences in the spatial distribution patterns of surface cover features, including aggregation of vegetation and litter covers, the distance of bare soil exposed to vegetation cover closer to the plot sediment collector and micro topographic mounds and sinks between pairs of replica plots. Small differences in sediment and runoff of only 0.9-1.4 folds and mean CV of 8.6%-25% were observed where the within-treatment pairs of replica plots had similar slope, total surface cover components and comparable spatial distribution pattern of vegetation and bare soil exposed surface covers. The results indicated that post-fire hillslopes undergoing effective vegetation recovery have the potential to reduce sediment and runoff production nearer to unburned levels within 6-years after burning while wildfire impacts could last more than 6-years on burned unseeded ridge slopes undergoing slow vegetation recovery.     

Plant diversity and community structure of Brazilian <Emphasis Type="Italic">Páramos</Emphasis>

In Eastern South America, high altitude grasslands represent a mountain system that has a high number of endemic species. However, studies on the ecology of plant communities in these environments remain scarce. We aimed to evaluate the patterns of biodiversity and structure of plant communities from rocky outcrops in high altitude grasslands of three areas at the Caparaó National Park, southeastern Brazil, by sampling 300 randomly distributed plots. Then, we compared the floristic composition, relative abundance, and biological and vegetation spectra among areas. We classified species as endemic and non-endemic and verified the occurrence of endangered species. Species richness was evaluated by rarefaction analysis on the sampling units. The importance value and species abundance distribution (SAD) models were assessed. We also performed an indicator species analysis. We sampled 58 species belonging to 49 genera and 32 families. The number of species decreased with increasing altitude, with significant differences being observed among areas regarding richness, abundance, and cover. Of the total number of species, 10 are endemic to the Caparaó National Park and 17 are listed on the Brazilian Red List of endangered species. The dominant families on all peaks were Asteraceae and Poaceae. The SAD models showed lognormal and geometric distributions, corroborating the fact that 10 species that were common to all three areas were also the most dominant ones in the communities and showed the highest importance values, which ranged between 35% and 60%. Indicator species analysis revealed that 28 species (48.27%) were indicators. Of these, 42.85% had maximum specificity, meaning that they occurred only in one area. Thus, the number of species per life form ratio was similar among areas, yet vegetation spectra differed, especially for hemicryptophytes. The altimetric difference among the areas showed to be a very important driver in the community assembly, influencing the evaluated variables, however, other drivers as soil depth, slope and water could also influence the community structure on a smaller and local spatial scale.     

Shrub Communities and Environmental Variables Responsible for Species Distribution Patterns in an Alpine Zone of the Qilian Mountains,Northwest China

Understanding the factors that drive variation in species distribution is a central theme of ecological research. Although several studies focused on alpine vegetation, few efforts have been made to identify the environmental factors that are responsible for the variations in species composition and richness of alpine shrublands using numericalmethods. In the present study, we investigated vegetation and associated environmental variables from 45 sample plots in the middle Qilian Mountains of the northwestern China to classify different community types and to elucidate the speciesenvironment relationships. We also estimated the relative contributions of topography and site conditions to spatial distribution patterns of the shrub communities using the variation partitioning. The results showed that four shrub community types were identified and striking differences in floristic composition were found among them. Species composition greatly depended on elevation, slope,shrub cover, soil p H and organic carbon. The important determinants of species richness were soil bulk density and slope. No significant differences in species richness were detected among the community types. Topography and site conditions had almost equal effects on compositional variation. Nonetheless,a large amount of the variation in species composition remained unexplained.     

利用MODIS影像提取火烧迹地方法的研究

火烧迹地监测不仅可以反映火灾对生态系统的影响情况及损失信息,还能为全球碳循环研究提供重要的数据支持。本文利用MODIS地表反射率产品（MOD09A1）的近红外和短波红外波段构建的归一化燃烧率指数（NBR）,计算前后2期影像的NBR差值,并在光谱指数差分法的基础上,结合MODIS植被数据产品（MOD44B）提供的植被覆盖度信息,设置规则提取火烧迹地。本文选择西伯利亚地区东南部的林地、草地、农田等不同生态系统的交界地带作为实验区,利用本文算法提取该区域的火烧迹地。实验结果表明：（1）本文算法的火烧迹地提取效果较好,优于MODIS火烧迹地产品（MCD45A1）,kappa系数由0.70提高到0.75;（2）利用林木覆盖度、草本覆盖度数据,可以减少误判,提高火烧迹地提取的精度,kappa系数分别由0.69、0.73都提高到0.75。     

Higher species diversity occurs in more fertile habitats without fertilizer disturbance in an alpine natural grassland community

Are there some relationships among species diversity and soil chemical properties of high altitude natural grasslands？ Plant community composition and chemical properties of soil samples were compared to investigate the relationship between soil and species diversity, and the richness in Tibetan alpine grasslands. Results showed that species diversity was significantly positively related to soil organic matter （SOM）, total nitrogen （TN）, available nitrogen （AN）, total phosphorus （TP）, available phosphorus （AP）, and available potassium （AK） in the high alpine grasslands. Margalefs species richness index was also significantly positively related to SOM, TN, AN, and TP. Most soil chemical properties showed significantly positive correlation with species diversity and Margalef＇s richness index. Our results suggested that higher plant species richness index and diversity occurred in more fertile soil habitats in high altitude natural grassland community. In practice, fertilization management for the restoration of degraded grassland should be conducted with reference to the nutrient levels ofnatural grassland without the additional artificial fertilizer and with higher species-diversity and richness index.     

森林过火区植被遥感参数的变化与恢复特征分析

遥感技术可以快速、准确地监测森林火灾火烧迹地的植被遥感参数变化,分析植被对火灾的响应与恢复特征,为防灾减灾决策提供科学依据。本文首先基于森林火灾前后的Landsat5 TM数据,利用差分归一化燃烧指数（the Differential Normalized Burn Ratio,dNBR）来提取2009年澳大利亚维多利亚州火烧迹地的范围,计算过火区面积及火烧强度;其次基于时间序列的全球地表特征参量（Global Land Surface Satellite,GLASS）产品中的叶面积指数（Leaf Area Index,LAI）、吸收光合有效辐射比例（Fraction of Absorbed Photosynthetically Active Radiation,FAPAR）数据,利用距平分析法对比不同火烧强度过火区植被与未过火区植被受森林火灾的影响状况与植被恢复特征。结果表明,森林火灾发生后,LAI、FAPAR值迅速降低,火烧强度越大,LAI、FAPAR下降程度越大,高火烧强度过火区的LAI、FAPAR最大降幅分别为中火烧强度、低火烧强度过火区的1.2、1.3倍;随时间推移,LAI、FAPAR值逐渐上升,在2-3年内恢复至未过火区水平。LAI、FAPAR恢复至未过火区平均水平的时间与森林火灾规模、火烧强度密切相关：维多利亚州森林火灾过火区域中大过火斑块、高火烧强度林地的植被遥感参数恢复时间相比小过火斑块、低火烧强度林地滞后1-2年。植被遥感参数LAI、FAPAR能很好地反映过火区植被的受损状况及恢复过程。     

Soil and vegetation seasonal changes in the grazing Andean Mountain grasslands

Andean grasslands ecosystems are fragile environments with rigorous climatologic conditions and low and variable food for the grazing. The Apolobamba area is located in the Bolivian Andean Mountains. Its high grasslands provide a natural habitat for wild and domestic camelids such as vicuna（Vicugna vicugna） and alpaca（Lama pacos）. The botanical diversity plays an essential role in maintaining vital ecosystem functions. The objectives of this research were to determine the seasonal changes in soil properties, to study the vegetation changes during the wet and dry seasons and the influence of soil properties and camelid densities on the vegetation in the Apolobamba grasslands. Four zones with different vicuna populations were selected to be studied. The following soil parameters were determined： total organic carbon, total nitrogen, available phosphorous, cation exchange capacity, exchangeable cations, pH and texture. The vegetation season changes were studied through botanical identification, above-ground biomass, plant cover and species richness. Results showed that some soil properties such as C/N ratio, CEC, silt and clay percentages kept stable against the seasonal changes. Generally, soil nutrients were relatively higher during the dry season in the surface and subsurface. The results did not point out the predominant vegetation growth during the wet season. The seasonal vegetation growth depended on each species. Thegood soil fertility corresponded to the highest plant cover. Soil fertility presented no influence on the above-ground biomass of the collected species. The negative influence of camelid grazing on soil properties could not be assessed. However, overgrazing could affect some plant species. Therefore, protection is needed in order to preserve the biodiversity in the Andean mountain grasslands.     

Herbage Production and Species Richness in Sub-alpine Grasslands of Different Soil Parent Material in Northern Greece

Several abiotic and biotic factors were investigated as possible predictors of local species richness in two sub-alpine grasslands of Jenna and Belles Mountains in Northern Greece.For species richness modelling a hierarchical modelling framework based on generalized additive models was adopted.The two sub-alpine grasslands differed in aspect,altitude and soil parent material（volcanic origin,mostly trachyte,and andesite（TA） for Jenna and metamorphic rocks,mostly gneiss（G） for Belles）.12 fenced squared plots,16 m2 each,were used per grassland,where soil properties,herbage production,species presence and cover of grasses,legumes and forbs were estimated.Mean herbage production was significantly affected by slope and altitude,soil K content and floristic composition as expressed by an ordination axis.Soil p H,floristic composition and average herbage production were significant predictors of forbs and total species richness.For the former,soil N content and for the latter the occurrence of Agrostis capillaris,were also included as significant terms in the predictive model.Thepredictors for grasses species richness were N content,having a positive effect,and average herbage production.In all cases higher species richness was predicted for intermediate values of average herbage production.Differential responses were found between forbs and grasses.The predictors of their species richness were different while for the case of the common predictor（N） the responses of the two groups were also different（grasses species numbers increase and forbs species numbers decreased with increasing N）.Maximum species richness of grasses was observed at relatively low production levels while forbs species richness maximized at relatively high production levels.     

Benefits of conservation-driven mowing for the EU policy species Gladiolus palustris Gaudin in mountain fen meadows: a case-study in the European Alps

The sword lily Gladiolus palustris Gaudin is protected on European level and listed in Annexes II and IV of the EC Habitat Directive 92/43/EEC. It grows in nutrient-poor, calcareous meadows in central and eastern Europe. Tree encroachment in montane meadows of the European Alps as a result of recent land use changes and the abandonment of traditional farming practices threaten the survival of this species. Conservation-driven mowing is considered a feasible conservation measure for maintaining high species diversity in abandoned semi-natural grasslands. To assess the effects of tenyears of biennial mowing on a grassland community in the Dolomiti Bellunesi National Park, Italy(Site of Community Importance, Natura 2000 network), ten25 m2 plots were established whereby four plots were placed in the mowed area, four in the non-mowed area and two in a small non-mowed patch of grassland inside the mowed area. In each plot the following variables were recorded, total percentage of plant cover, percentage cover of woody species,percentage cover of herbaceous species, percentage cover and number of flowering ramets of G. palustris and a complete list of species and their percentage abundance. Mowed plots showed a higher species richness than non-mowed plots. The number of G.palustris flowering ramets and percentage cover increased manifold in mowed plots compared to nonmowed plots. The resumption of mowing forconservation purposes undertaken by the managing authority halted the process of tree encroachment and avoided a drastic change in plant composition.Periodic mowing(every second or third year) was demonstrated to be a cost-effective conservation measure in non-productive grasslands to keep grasses at bay in favour of forbs of high conversation value.     

不同数据源归一化植被指数在中国北方草原区的应用比较

中国北方草原区生产力在区域碳水循环、农牧业发展中举足轻重。归一化植被指数（Normalized Difference Vegetation Index,NDVI）广泛应用于生产力的计算,然而目前来源众多的NDVI数据反映中国北方草原植被时空动态的一致性仍未可知。本研究利用2000—2015年3个来源NDVI数据集（MODIS NDVI、GIMMS NDVI和SPOT NDVI）并以国际上公认的数据准确性较高的MODIS NDVI为基准对比分析了中国北方草原区NDVI时空动态的一致性,并选取适宜的NDVI产品揭示研究区NDVI长期的时空格局。结果表明：整个中国北方草原区以及部分草原类型（高寒草甸、高寒草原、高寒荒漠、温带荒漠草原）GIMMS NDVI和MODIS NDVI 2套数据集无论是数值范围,还是年际波动和变化趋势具有较高一致性（二者在高寒草甸、高寒草原、高寒荒漠、温带荒漠草原的相关系数分别为0.60、0.47、0.51、0.74）,而SPOT NDVI数值远高于其他2个数据集,尤其是在青藏高原草原区,SPOT NDVI数值每年较另外两套数据集约偏高0.15,表明该区域使用SPOT数据应慎重。部分温带草原类型（典型草原和草甸草原）GIMMS NDVI和SPOT NDVI数据集在年际波动以及变化趋势上具有较高的一致性（相关系数分别为0.85和0.60）,但温带草原区3种数据集NDVI数值范围整体相差不大,小于0.06。基于上述结果,本研究进一步采用时间序列最长且与MODIS NDVI一致性最好的GIMMS NDVI分析了研究区NDVI的时空动态,发现1982—2015年中国北方草原区NDVI整体呈增加趋势,25%的区域达显著水平（p<0.05）,主要集中在温带草原区;高寒草原区NDVI大部分区域变化不显著且有一定比例的区域NDVI呈显著下降趋势。本研究可以为模型数据集选择和预测中国北方草原区植被对未来气候变化的响应提供科学依据。     

秦巴山区植被覆盖与土壤湿度时空变化特征及其相互关系

基于2001-2014年MODIS-NDVI和MODIS-LST数据,利用温度植被干旱指数对土壤湿度进行遥感反演,分析了秦巴山区植被覆盖与土壤湿度时空变化特征及其相互关系。研究发现：① 秦巴山区植被覆盖与土壤湿度均呈增加趋势;② 植被覆盖整体水平较高且表现出“四周低,中间高”的空间分布特征,土壤湿度整体表现出“北低南高”的空间分布特征,大体上二者呈现出空间分布正相关性;③ 植被改善趋势表现明显,显著改善区分布分散,无明显集中区域,退化区域主要集中于北部渭河沿岸及东部边缘少量地区;土壤湿度增长态势明显,增大区分布于除西北边缘及东北边缘外的几乎整个研究区中,减小区域面积小且大部分表现不显著;④ 秦巴山区植被覆盖与土壤湿度时空变化上呈现出明显的正相关性,其中69.71%的区域表现出土壤湿度增大-植被覆盖改善的特征,分布于研究区除四周边缘地带外的大部分地区。     

Plant communities and factors responsible for vegetation pattern in an alpine area of the northwestern Himalaya

The study intended to describe the alpine vegetation of a protected area of the northwestern Himalaya and identify the important environmental variables responsible for species distribution. We placed random plots covering different habitats and altitude to record species composition and environmental variables. Vegetation was classified using hierarchical cluster analysis and vegetation-environment relationships were evaluated with Canonical Correspondence Analysis. Four communities, each in alpine shrub and meadows were delineated and well justified in the ordination plots. Indicator species for the different communities were identified. Maximum species richness and diversity were found in community IV among shrub communities and community II among the meadows. Studied environmental variables explained 61.5% variation in shrub vegetation and 59.8% variation in meadows. Soil variables explained higher variability (∼35%) than spatial variables (∼21%) in both shrubs and meadows. Altitude, among the spatial variables and carbon/nitrogen ratio and nitrogen among the soil variables explained maximum variation. About 40% variations left unexplained. Latitude and species diversity among the other variables had significant correlation with ordination axes. Study showed that altitude and C/N ratio played a significant role in species composition. Extensive sampling efforts and inclusion of other non-studied variables are also suggested for better understanding.     

Understory vascular plant community assembly in relation to time-since-fire and environmental variables in a Chinese boreal forest

Understanding the response of understory vegetation to fire disturbance is vital to biodiversity conservation and management of boreal forests. We surveyed understory vascular plant richness and composition, and measured related environmental variables along a toposequence within three successional stages, initial (3 years post-fire), early (13 years post-fire) and late (>100 years post-fire) successional stages. Using permutation multivariate ANOVA and nonmetric multidimensional scaling, we analyzed how understory species richness and composition change as time-since-fire proceeds, and their correlative relationships with environmental variables. Species richness and composition showed significant differences among the three successional stages. Understory species richness and abundance were significantly associated with time-since-fire, topographic position, elevation and organic layer depth. Among these variables, time-since-fire had the strongest effect and topographic position was the second major factor on affecting understory community assembly. In addition, time-since-fire overwhelmed the effects of soil pH in the initial successional stage and gravimetric soil moisture in early and late successional stages on understory species composition     

青海湖流域植被盖度时空变化研究

高寒区植被变化一直是气候和生态学领域关注的热点问题。本研究基于MODIS NDVI数据计算的植被覆盖度数据和高分辨率气象数据,分析了青海湖流域2001-2017年植被覆盖度分布格局及动态变化,探讨了其对气候变化、人类活动和冻土退化的响应。结果表明：① 近十几年青海湖流域植被覆盖度整体表现为增加趋势,不同植被类型增幅存在差异性,草地增幅最大,达到6.1%/10a,其它植被类型增幅在2%~3%/10a之间;② 流域局部地区仍存在植被退化现象,研究期植被退化面积表现为先增加后减小的变化趋势。2006-2011年重度退化区集中在青海湖东岸,2011-2017年重度退化区集中在流域的西北部,这些区域是青海湖流域荒漠分布区,植被覆盖度较低,是今后生态恢复需重点关注的区域;③ 气候变化是流域植被覆盖度变化的主导因素,气候变化对青海湖流域主要植被类型覆盖度变化的贡献率为84.21%,对草原、草甸和灌丛植被覆盖度变化的贡献率分别为81.84%、87.47%和75.96%;④ 人类活动对流域主要植被类型覆盖度变化的贡献率为15.79%,对草原、草甸和灌丛植被覆盖度变化的贡献率分别为18.16%、12.53%和24.04%,环青海湖地区人类活动对植被恢复有促进效应,在青海湖流域北部部分地区人类活动的破坏力度仍大于建设力度;⑤ 冻土退化对青海湖流域草甸和灌丛植被覆盖度变化影响很小,主要影响草原植被覆盖度变化,冻土退化造成草原植被覆盖度增长速率减小了1.2%/10a。     

Degradation stage effects on vegetation and soil properties interactions in alpine steppe

In recent decades,overgrazing and the warming and drying climate have resulted in significant degradation of alpine grasslands in the source region of the Yellow River.However,research into the relationships between vegetation and soil properties has mainly focused on an overall degradation stage,and few studies have investigated which soil properties can impact vegetation change at different stages of degradation.Vegetation and soil properties were observed in the field and measured in the laboratory for different predefined stages of degradation for alpine grassland in Maduo County in the source region of the Yellow River.Results show that:1)the aboveground and belowground biomass,soil organic carbon,total nitrogen,nitrate,and ammonia content did not decrease significantly from the intact to moderate degradation stage,but decreased significantly at severe and very severe stages of degradation;2)dominant plant species shifted from gramineaes and sedges to forbs;3)the species richness and Pielou evenness indices decreased significantly at the very severe degradation stage,the Shannon-Wiener diversity index increased at the slight and moderate degradation,but decreased at the severe and very severe degradation stages;4)soil bulk density was the strongest soil driver for changes in the plant biomass and community diversity at the intact,slight and moderate degradation stages,whereas soil organic carbon and nitrate nitrogen content were the main driving factors for changes in plant biomass and diversity at the severe and very severe degradation stages.Our results suggest that there may be different interactions between soil properties and plants before and after moderate stages of degradation.     

Exploring seven hundred years of transhumance,climate dynamic,fire and human activity through a historical mountain pass in central Spain

A high-altitude peat sequence from the heart of the Spanish Central System (Gredos range) was analysed through a multi-proxy approach to determine the sensitivity of high-mountain habitats to climate, fire and land use changes during the last seven hundred years, providing valuable insight into our understanding of the vegetation history and environmental changes in a mountain pass close to a traditional route of transhumance. The pollen data indicate that the vegetation was dominated by shrublands and grasslands with scattered pines in high-mountain areas, while in the valleys cereals, chestnut and olive trees were cultivated. Strong declines of high-mountain pines percentages are recorded at 1540, 1675, 1765, 1835 and 1925 cal AD, which may be related to increasing grazing activities and/or the occurrence of anthropogenic fires. The practice of mountain summer farming and transhumance deeply changed and redesigned the landscape of the high altitudes in central Spain (Gredos range) since the Middle Ages, although its dynamics was influenced in some way by climate variability of the past seven centuries.     

Vegetation cover variation in the Qilian Mountains and its response to climate change in 2000–2011

An understanding 0f variati0ns in vegetati0n c0ver in resp0nse t0 climate change is critical f0r predicting and managing future terrestrial ec0system dynamics. Because scientists anticipate that m0untain ec0systems will be m0re sensitive t0 future climate change c0mpared t0 0thers, 0ur 0bjectives were t0 investigate the impacts 0f climate change 0n variati0n in vegetati0n c0ver in the Qilian M0untains （QLM）, China, between 2000 and 2011. T0 acc0mplish this, we used linear regressi0n techniques 0n 250-m MODIS N0rmalized Difference Vegetati0n Index （NDVI） datasets and mete0r0l0gical rec0rds t0 determine spati0temp0ral variability in vegetati0n c0ver and climatic fact0rs （i.e. temperature and precipitati0n）. Our results sh0wed that temperatures and precipitati0n have increased in this regi0n during 0ur study peri0d. In additi0n, we f0und that gr0wing seas0n mean NDVI was mainly distributed in the vertical z0ne fr0m 2,700 m t0 3,600 m in elevati0n. In the study regi0n, we 0bserved significant p0sitive and negative trends in vegetati0n c0ver in 26.71% and 2.27% 0f the vegetated areas. C0rrelati0n analyses indicated that rising precipitati0n fr0m May t0 August was resp0nsible f0r increased vegetati0n c0ver in areas with p0sitive trends in gr0wing seas0n mean NDVI. H0wever, there was n0 similar significant c0rrelati0n between gr0wing seas0n mean NDVI and precipitati0n in regi0ns where vegetati0n c0ver declined thr0ugh0ut 0ur study peri0d. Using spatial statistics, we f0und that veeetati0n c0ver freauentlvdeclined in areas within the 2,500-3,100 m vertical z0ne, where it has steep sl0pe, and is 0n the sunny side 0f m0untains. Here, the p0sitive influences 0f increasing precipitati0n c0uld n0t 0ffset the drier c0nditi0ns that 0ccurred thr0ugh warming trends. In c0ntrast, in higher elevati0n z0nes （3,900-4,500 m） 0n the shaded side 0f the m0untains, rising temperatures and increasing precipitati0n impr0ved c0nditi0ns f0r vegetati0n gr0wth. Increased precipitati0n als0 facilitated vegetati0n gr0wth in areas experiencing warming trends at l0wer elevati0ns （2,000-2,400 m） and 0n l0wer sl0pes where water was m0re easily c0nserved. We suggest that spatial differences in variati0n in vegetati0n as the result 0f climate change depend 0n l0cal m0isture and thermal c0nditi0ns, which are mainly c0ntr0lled by t0p0graphy （e.g. elevati0n, aspect, and sl0pe）, and 0ther fact0rs, such as l0cal hydr0l0gy.     

Phytogeographic and syntaxonomic diversity of high mountain vegetation in Dinaric Alps (Western Balkan, SE Europe)

The high alpine and subalpine vegetation of Dinaric Alps is very diverse.These are conditional on genuine patterns of development of the geological substrate,climate,soil and terrain on the mountain world,which are interconnected and spatially,and ecologically away.Also,today high mountain vegetation is extremely important indicator of global changes.In this area are many refugia of glacial biodiversity.Very illustrative example for understanding the specific forms of ecological diversity is high alpine vegetation in the area of the Balkan Peninsula.Vegetation of alpine belt of Western Balkans and Bosnia and Herzegovina is differed by extremely high level of biological and ecological diversity.Climatogenous vegetation are alpine and sub-alpine pastures above of timberline,then extra zonal forms of vegetation-glaciers,rock creeps,breaches of rocks,alpine springs,marsh,and tall greenery.This vegetation is dominant determinant of alpine ecosystems that creates their unique physiognomy and also enables prime production of biomass.It is different with extraordinary floral richness,especially in a number of endemic species and glacier relicts that are included in a large number of phytocoenoses,many of which are of endemic.In syntaxonomic sense,alpine vegetation is differentiated into 10 classes:Elyno-Seslerietea,Juncetea trifidi,Salicetea herbaceae,Thalspietea rotundifolii,Asplenietea trichomanis,and Scheuchzerio-Caricetea fuscae,Montio-Cardaminetea,Loiseleurio-Vaccinietea,Mulgedio-Aconitetea and Molinio-Arrhenatheretea.These classes are differentiated into 20 vegetation orders,38 alliances and 190 associations and sub-associations.In total,that is 60 % of communities of total vegetation diversity of Bosnia and Herzegovina,and 12.5% of classes of highest syntaxonomic categories in vegetation diversity of Europe.