Some Aspects of Atmospheric Dispersion in the Stratified Atmospheric Boundary Layer over Homogeneous Terrain

The ability to simulate atmospheric dispersion with models developed for applied use under stable atmospheric stability conditions is discussed. The paper is based on model simulations of three experimental data sets reported in the literature. The Hanford data set covered weakly stable conditions, the Prairie Grass experiments covered both weakly stable and very stable atmospheric conditions, and the Lillestrøm experiment was carried out during very stable conditions. Simulations of these experiments reported in the literature for eight different models are discussed. Applied models based on the Gaussian plume model concept with the spread parameters described in terms of the Pasquill stability classification or Monin–Obukhov similarity relationships are used. Other model types are Lagrangian particle models which also are parameterized in terms of Monin–Obukhov similarity relationships. The applied models describe adequately the dispersion process in a weakly stable atmosphere, but fail during very stable atmospheric conditions. This suggests that Monin–Obukhov similarity theory is an adequate tool for the parameterization of the input parameters to atmospheric dispersion models during weakly stable conditions, but that more detailed parameterisations including other physical processes than those covered by the Monin–Obukhov theory should be developed for the very stable atmosphere.     

An Idealized Mean Wind Profile for the Atmospheric Boundary Layer

We test a flexible, idealized mean wind profile for the loweratmosphere that can easily be matched to whatever windobservations may be available. Its intended function is to providea `best guess' wind profile from limited observations, e.g., foruse in dispersion models, and to this end, following earlierauthors, we have matched a Monin–Obukhov layer to a baroclinic Ekman layer.To demonstrate the flexibility of the two-layer wind profile, weoptimize its free parameters to provide best interpolative fits toa sample of multi-level wind profiles. These include model windprofiles extracted from the Canadian Global EnvironmentalMulti-scale weather model (GEM), as well as experimental profilesfrom the Wangara experiment, and from an over-ocean dispersionexperiment (LROD). In most cases the two-layer profile fit issatisfactory.     

Wave-Modified Flux and Plume Dispersion in the Stable Boundary Layer

The effects of a pressure jump and a following internal gravity wave on turbulence and plume diffusion in the stable planetary boundary layer are examined. The pressure jump was accompanied by a sudden increase in turbulence and plume dispersion. The effects of wave perturbations on turbulence statistics are analysed by calculating fluxes and variances with and without the wave signal for averaging times ranging from 1 to 30 min. The wave signals are obtained using a band-pass filter. It is shown that second-order turbulence quantities calculated without first subtracting the wave perturbations from the time are greater than those calculated when the wave signal is separated from the turbulence. Estimates of the vertical dispersion of an elevated tracer plume in the stable boundary layer are made using an elastic backscatter lidar. Plume dispersion observed 25 m downwind of the source increases rapidly with the arrival of the flow disturbances. Measured plume dispersion and plume centreline height correlate with the standard deviation of the vertical velocity but not with the wave signal.     

Laboratory Simulation Of Vertical Plume Dispersion Within A Convective Boundary Layer

Mesoscale measurements of the vertical dispersion coefficient ₂ by using a composite turbulence water tank were validated through a comparison with CONDORS (Convective Diffusion Observed with Remote Sensors) field data, and were analysed with respect to the intensity of the thermal flux, mechanical turbulence, and plume release height.It seems possible to correct the plume _z values for different release heights below 0.5z_i (z_i is the mixing height) by applying an equation expressing the height dependency of turbulence intensity. The downwind distance where the plume's mass centre height approaches its final level was also analysed with respect to the above three parameters, and an empirical equation to estimate the downwinddistance derived.     

Observations of Atmospheric Solitary Waves in the Urban Boundary Layer

The simultaneous operation of a three-axis Doppler sodar system in the centralurban area of Rome and two similar systems in the suburban area, forming atriangle about 20 km on each side, provided evidence of solitary-type wavesin the urban boundary layer. Three events, each lasting from a few minutes toabout 30 min, and ranging in depth from the minimum range of the sodar (39 m) to over 500 m, are reported here. Two events were recognizable onall three sodar records while the third event could be observed at the urbanlocation only. Time-height acoustic echo intensity records showed no-echoregions within the wave indicating transport of trapped recirculating air.This is typical of large amplitude solitary waves. The time series plots ofsodar-derived vertical wind velocity revealed a maximum peak-to-peakvariation of about 5 m s^-1 during periods of wave-associated disturbance.The vertical velocity is found to increase with height up to the top of the closedcirculation within the wave and decreases further above. The normalisedamplitude-wavelength relationship for the two events indicates that theobserved waves are close to a strongly nonlinear regime.     

The Adaptation of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer to a Change in Surface Roughness

The adaptation of the atmospheric boundary layer to a change in the underlying surface roughness is an interesting problem and hence much research, theoretical, experimental, and numerical, has been undertaken. Within the atmospheric boundary layer an accurate numerical model for the turbulent properties of the atmospheric boundary layer needs to be implemented if physically realistic results are to be obtained. Here, the adaptation of the atmospheric boundary layer to a change in surface roughness is investigated using a first-order turbulence closure model, a one-and-a-half-order turbulence closure model and a second-order turbulence closure model. Perturbations to the geostrophic wind and the pressure gradients are included and it is shown that the second-order turbulence closure model, namely the standard k - model, is inferior to a lower-order closure model if a modification to limit the turbulent eddy size within the atmospheric boundary layer is not included within the model.     

城市大气边界层的数值研究

本文利用能量闭合的二维非线性、非定常模式,结合地面热量平衡方程,研究了城市热岛和城市热岛环流以及其它相关的城市边界层参量的发展演变规律;同时探讨了在城市污染面源的情况下,污染物的扩散、输送问题.模拟结果得到了天津市城市热岛观测资料的证实.     

Fluid Modelling Of Atmospheric Dispersion In The Convective Boundary Layer

A laboratory convection tank has been established following thepioneering work of Willis and Deardorff, but with many improvements and enhancements thattake advantage of modern technology. The main emphasis in the current design was toprovide the ability to conduct a virtually unlimited number of realizations under essentiallyidentical conditions in order to obtain reliable statistics on the dispersion of plumes and puffsreleased within the simulated atmospheric convective boundary layer. Described herein is the tankitself and its auxiliary systems, including a laser-induced-fluorescence and video-imaging system for makingnon-intrusive, full-field measurements of concentrations, and the interfacing of varioussubsystems with a master controller that automates essentially all operation and measurement functions.The current system provides unprecedented resolution, control, and data volumes. Exampleresults are presented from two types of releases: continuous plumes and instantaneous puffs.These data sets clearly show penetration of the highly buoyant plumes and puffs into theinversion above the convective boundary layer, gravity spreading within the inversion, andrapid diffusion within the mixed layer. They also show extreme `spottiness' in the instantaneousconcentration cross-sections.     

复杂地形城市冬季边界层对气溶胶辐射效应的响应

作者着眼于城市气溶胶辐射效应与大气边界层的相互作用问题,针对地形复杂的兰州市及周边地区,开发应用了WRF(Weather Research and Forecasting,天气研究和预报)模式,使之与包含了大气气溶胶辐射效应和气溶胶粒子扩散的综合大气边界层数值模式嵌套起来.通过个例分析,揭示了冬季气溶胶辐射效应对边界层结构的定量影响.主要特征为夜间气溶胶的长波辐射效应使地面附近的气温增高,增温幅度为0.1～0.3 K/h,使低空(25～300 m)大气层冷却,降温幅度为0.08～0.15 K/h,风速在150 m以下减小;白天气溶胶的短波辐射效应使地面层内明显增温,1 h内升温约0.5 K,增温最大值在混合层顶500～600 m高度.受增温影响,垂直风场和水平风场随之调整,风速在450 m以下增大约0.1 m/s左右,而在450 m以上风速减小0.1 m/s左右.     

Large-Eddy Simulation of air Pollution Dispersion in the Nocturnal Cloud-Topped Atmospheric Boundary Layer

Effects of stratocumulus clouds on the dispersion of contaminants are studied in the nocturnal atmospheric boundary layer. The study is based on a large-eddy simulation (LES) model with a bulk parametrization of clouds. Computations include Lagrangian calculations of atmospheric dispersion of a passive tracer released from point sources at various heights above the ground. The results obtained show that the vertical diffusion is non-Gaussian and depends on the location of a source in the boundary layer.     

北京城区大气边界层高度的反演研究

采用北京市国家大气探测试验基地2017年5月1日至2019年8月31日的微波辐射计观测结果,通过位温气块法反演了该地区的大气边界层高度,统计其日变化和月际变化特征,并与相应的探空反演结果进行对比.结果表明:日间大气边界层高度的变化特征与日照时长对应关系很好.除热力作用外,边界层高度受地面风速的影响较大,近地面的较强大风...     

Impacts of Aerosol Shortwave Radiation Absorption on the Dynamics of an Idealized Convective Atmospheric Boundary Layer

We investigated the impact of aerosol heat absorption on convective atmospheric boundary-layer (CBL) dynamics. Numerical experiments using a large-eddy simulation model enabled us to study the changes in the structure of a dry and shearless CBL in depth-equilibrium for different vertical profiles of aerosol heating rates. Our results indicated that aerosol heat absorption decreased the depth of the CBL due to a combination of factors: (i) surface shadowing, reducing the sensible heat flux at the surface and, (ii) the development of a deeper inversion layer, stabilizing the upper CBL depending on the vertical aerosol distribution. Steady-state analytical solutions for CBL depth and potential temperature jump, derived using zero-order mixed-layer theory, agreed well with the large-eddy simulations. An analysis of the entrainment zone heat budget showed that, although the entrainment flux was controlled by the reduction in surface flux, the entrainment zone became deeper and less stably stratified. Therefore, the vertical profile of the aerosol heating rate promoted changes in both the structure and evolution of the CBL. More specifically, when absorbing aerosols were present only at the top of the CBL, we found that stratification at lower levels was the mechanism responsible for a reduction in the vertical velocity and a steeper decay of the turbulent kinetic energy throughout the CBL. The increase in the depth of the inversion layer also modified the potential temperature variance. When aerosols were present we observed that the potential temperature variance became significant already around $0.7z_i$ (where $z_i$ is the CBL height) but less intense at the entrainment zone due to the smoother potential temperature vertical gradient.     

复杂地形城市冬季边界层气溶胶扩散和分布模拟

着眼于城市冬季气溶胶扩散特征问题,针对地形复杂的兰州市及周边地区,开发了WRF模式,使之与包含了大气气溶胶辐射效应和气溶胶粒子扩散的综合大气边界层数值模式嵌套,以模拟城市冬季边界层气溶胶的扩散和分布规律。通过一个个例的模拟结果分析,揭示了兰州冬季气溶胶的扩散分布的如下特征;市区盆地内100 m以下存在东、西两个浓度高值中心,中心值为0.6~3.0 mg.m-3,往上浓度递减,1000 m高度处仅为0.02 mg.m-3。受排放源强、源高、气象场等因素的共同影响,白天盆地内气溶胶浓度随高度和时间的变化强烈,白天浓度随时间最大变化幅度为1.0 mg.m-3。气溶胶输送扩散高度可达到600~800 m,此高度以上浓度值很小。代表性测点上模拟的气溶胶浓度廓线表明,中午浓度达到最高,垂直扩散最强。这些结果与以往的烟雾层高度观测和气溶胶光学厚度观测结果吻合。夜间,盆地内气溶胶浓度随高度和时间的变化减弱,气溶胶输送扩散高度在400~500m,夜间浓度随时间变化平均幅度为0.05 mg.m-3。     

Lagrangian Stochastic Models For Turbulent Dispersion In The Atmospheric Boundary Layer

A one-particle three-dimensional stochastic Lagrangian model fortransport of particles in a horizontally-homogeneous atmosphericsurface layer with arbitrary one-point probability density functionof Eulerian velocity fluctuations is suggested. A uniquely definedLagrangian stochastic model in the class of well-mixed models isconstructed from physically plausible assumptions. These assumptionsare: (i) in the neutrally stratified horizontally homogeneous surface layer, the vertical motion is mainly controlled by eddies whose size is of order of the current height; and (ii), the streamwise drift term is independent of the crosswind velocity. Numerical simulations for neutral stratification have shown a good agreement of our model with the well-known Thomson's model, with Flesch and Wilson's model, and with experimental measurements as well. However there is a discrepancy of these results with the results obtained by Reynolds' model.     

Pollutant Dispersion in Boundary Layers Exposed to Rural-to-Urban Transitions: Varying the Spanwise Length Scale of the Roughness

Both large-eddy simulations (LES) and water-tunnel experiments, using simultaneous stereoscopic particle image velocimetry and laser-induced fluorescence, have been used to investigate pollutant dispersion mechanisms in regions where the surface changes from rural to urban roughness. The urban roughness was characterized by an array of rectangular obstacles in an in-line arrangement. The streamwise length scale of the roughness was kept constant, while the spanwise length scale was varied by varying the obstacle aspect ratio l / h between 1 and 8, where l is the spanwise dimension of the obstacles and h is the height of the obstacles. Additionally, the case of two-dimensional roughness (riblets) was considered in LES. A smooth-wall turbulent boundary layer of depth 10h was used as the approaching flow, and a line source of passive tracer was placed 2h upstream of the urban canopy. The experimental and numerical results show good agreement, while minor discrepancies are readily explained. It is found that for \(l/h=2\) the drag induced by the urban canopy is largest of all considered cases, and is caused by a large-scale secondary flow. In addition, due to the roughness transition the vertical advective pollutant flux is the main ventilation mechanism in the first three streets. Furthermore, by means of linear stochastic estimation the mean flow structure is identified that is responsible for street-canyon ventilation for the sixth street and onwards. Moreover, it is shown that the vertical length scale of this structure increases with increasing aspect ratio of the obstacles in the canopy, while the streamwise length scale does not show a similar trend.     

Dispersion of Heavy Particles Emitted from Area Sources in the Unstable Atmospheric Boundary Layer

Reliable predictions of the daytime dispersal of heavy particles in the unstable atmospheric boundary layer are important in a variety of disciplines. For many applications, particles disperse from area sources near the ground, and corresponding theoretical solutions are desired to reveal insight into the physical processes. Here, theoretical solutions recently developed for neutral conditions are modified to include the effects of atmospheric instability. The Obukhov length L _O and convection velocity w _? are introduced to characterize the patterns of particle dispersion, in additional to friction velocity u _? and settling velocity w _s used in the neutral case. The major effects of atmospheric instability are accounted for by modifying the vertical velocity variance profile and considering the ratio of velocity scales w _?/u _?. Theoretical predictions including the mean concentration profile, plume height, and horizontal transport above the source, and ground deposition flux downwind from the source agree well with large-eddy simulation results while the particle plume is within the atmospheric surface layer. The deposition curve is characterized by a power-law decay whose exponent depends on u _?, w _s, and w _?. A second steeper power-law develops once the plume extends into the mixed layer. This effect is enhanced with increasing atmospheric instability, implying that particles disperse farther from the source.     

A Lagrangian Stochastic Model for Heavy Particle Dispersion in the Atmospheric Marine Boundary Layer

The dispersion of heavy particles and pollutants is often simulated with Lagrangian stochastic (LS) models. Although these models have been employed successfully over land, the free surface at the air-sea interface complicates the implementation of traditional LS models. We present an adaptation of traditional LS models to the atmospheric marine boundary layer (MBL), where the bottom boundary is represented by a realistic wavy surface that moves and deforms. In addition, the correlation function for the turbulent flow following a particle is extended to the anisotropic, unsteady case. Our new model reproduces behaviour for Lagrangian turbulence in a stratified air flow that departs only slightly from the expected behaviour in isotropic turbulence. When solving for the trajectory of a heavy particle in the air flow, the modelled turbulent forcing on the particle also behaves remarkably well. For example, the spectrum of the turbulence at the particle location follows that of a massless particle for time scales approximately larger than the Stokes’ particle response time. We anticipate that this model will prove especially useful in the context of sea-spray dispersion and its associated momentum, sensible and latent heat, and gas fluxes between spray droplets and the atmosphere.     

我国西部高原大气边界层中的对流活动

利用 1 998年第 2次青藏高原野外试验中的多普勒声雷达探测、低空探测观测以及卫星观测资料对高原大气边界层内的对流现象进行分析研究。声雷达探测到了高原边界层内有强烈的对流活动。这种对流泡中心的垂直速度可超过 1m/s,并存在尺度为 1个多小时的周期性 ,表现为中小尺度的有组织的湍流活动。高原边界层强对流得以发展和维持的物理机制是 :强辐射加热、复杂的地形地貌形成的下垫面不均一性造成边界层斜压性、边界层内的平流活动等 ,这些现象都有利于对流的发展。在这些条件的作用下 ,边界层内可以产生一系列有组织的强湍流大涡旋活动 ,这些大涡旋形成的热泡在向上发展的过程中有的能够发生合并 ,变得更大也更为猛烈 ,达到凝结高度以上可形成对流云 ,并发生充分的对流混合。成云过程凝结潜热释放更有利于对流运动进一步发展 ,使对流云逐步发展成更大的对流云团 ,从而产生卫星云图中显示的云团发展过程。     

夜间城市大气边界层和气溶胶的相互作用

本文利用能量闭合的二维非线性、非定常模式,结合地面热量平衡方程,研究了夜间城市边界层和气溶胶的相互作用问题。结果表明：气溶胶在夜间对大气低层起保温作用,对大气上层起冷却作用;使大气低层稳定度减小,上层稳定度增加;此外,气溶胶还能够削弱贴地逆温强度。在正常城市气溶胶污染情况下,气溶胶对城市热岛强度影响不大,但可使城市热岛环流稍有增加。夜间城市边界层对气溶胶的反馈作用使大气下层气溶胶浓度减小,上层气溶胶浓度增加。上述部分结论得到了在天津取得的城市热岛观测资料的直接验证。     

Simulating Dispersion in the Evening-Transition Boundary Layer

We investigate dispersion in the evening-transition boundary layer using large-eddy simulation (LES). In the LES, a particle model traces pollutant paths using a combination of the resolved flow velocities and a random displacement model to represent subgrid-scale motions. The LES is forced with both a sudden switch-off of the surface heat flux and also a more gradual observed evolution. The LES shows ‘lofting’ of plumes from near-surface releases in the pre-transition convective boundary layer; it also shows the subsequent ‘trapping’ of releases in the post-transition near-surface stable boundary layer and residual layer above. Given the paucity of observations for pollution dispersion in evening transitions, the LES proves a useful reference. We then use the LES to test and improve a one-dimensional Lagrangian Stochastic Model (LSM) such as is often used in practical dispersion studies. The LSM used here includes both time-varying and skewed turbulence statistics. It is forced with the vertical velocity variance, skewness and dissipation from the LES for particle releases at various heights and times in the evening transition. The LSM plume spreads are significantly larger than those from the LES in the post-transition stable boundary-layer trapping regime. The forcing from the LES was thus insufficient to constrain the plume evolution, and inclusion of the significant stratification effects was required. In the so-called modified LSM, a correction to the vertical velocity variance was included to represent the effect of stable stratification and the consequent presence of wave-like motions. The modified LSM shows improved trapping of particles in the post-transition stable boundary layer.