Vulnerability of the oil and gas sector to climate change and extreme weather events

A changing climate and more frequent extreme weather events pose challenges to the oil and gas sector. Identifying how these changes will affect oil and gas extraction, transportation, processing, and delivery, and how these industries can adapt to or mitigate any adverse impacts will be vital to this sector’s supply security. This work presents an overview of the sector’s vulnerability to a changing climate. It addresses the potential for Natech hazards and proposes risk reduction measures, including mitigation and adaptation options. Assessment frameworks to ensure the safety of people, the environment, and investments in the oil and gas sector in the face of climate change are presented and their limitations discussed. It is argued that a comprehensive and systemic analysis framework for risk assessment is needed. The paper concludes that climate change and extreme weather events represent a real physical threat to the oil and gas sector, particularly in low-lying coastal areas and areas exposed to extreme weather events. The sector needs to take climate change seriously, assess its own vulnerability, and take appropriate measures to prevent or mitigate any potentially negative effects.     

Mapping the shadow of experience of extreme weather events

Climate change will increase the frequency and/or intensity of certain extreme weather events, and perceived experience with extreme weather may influence climate change beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. However, the aspects of extreme events that influence whether or not people perceive that they have personally experienced them remain unclear. We investigate (1) the correspondence of reported experience of extreme weather events with documented events, and (2) how characteristics of different extreme events shape the geographic area within which people are likely to report they have experienced it—the event’s perceived “shadow of experience.” We overlay geocoded survey responses indicating personal experience with hurricanes, tornadoes, and drought—from a 2012 nationally representative survey (N?=?1,008) of U.S. residents—on maps of recorded event impacts. We find that reported experiences correspond well with recorded event impacts, particularly for hurricanes and tornadoes. Reported experiences were related to event type, proximity, magnitude and duration. The results suggest locations where disaster preparedness efforts and climate change education campaigns could be most effective after an extreme weather event.     

把脉极端天气气候事件,构建预测方法

<正>极端天气气候事件是造成我国重大自然灾害的主要根源,并且在近年来有加重的趋势。暴雨、台风、持续性强降温、暴雪、高温热浪、重霾污染等都是全社会高度关注的,科学家们需要剖析形成这些极端天气气候事件的原因和科学过程、机理,并研究构建有效的科学预测方法,以达到防灾减灾的目的。     

Characterising climate change discourse on social media during extreme weather events

When extreme weather events occur, people often turn to social media platforms to share information, opinions and experiences. One of the topics commonly discussed is the role climate change may or may not have played in influencing an event. Here, we examine Twitter posts that mentioned climate change in the context of three high-magnitude extreme weather events – Hurricane Irene, Hurricane Sandy and Snowstorm Jonas – in order to assess how the framing of the topic and the attention paid to it can vary between events. We also examine the role that contextual factors can play in shaping climate change coverage on the platform. We find that criticism of climate change denial dominated during Irene, while political and ideological struggle frames dominated during Sandy. Discourse during Jonas was, in contrast, more divided between posts about the scientific links between climate change and the events, and posts contesting climate science in general. The focus on political and ideological struggle frames during Sandy reflects the event’s occurrence at a time when the Occupy movement was active and the 2012 US Presidential Election was nearing. These factors, we suggest, could also contribute to climate change being a more prominent discussion point during Sandy than during Irene or Jonas. The Jonas frames, meanwhile, hint at lesser public understanding of how climate change may influence cold weather events when compared with tropical storms. Overall, our findings demonstrate how event characteristics and short-term socio-political context can play a critical role in determining the lenses through which climate change is viewed.     

近年来黑龙江省主要极端天气气候事件及其影响

近年来,由于人类活动及自然因素等的综合影响,全球气候不断出现大范围的异常现象,极端天气气候事件频繁发生,给社会、经济的持续发展和人民生命财产造成了严重的影响和损失.而地处中纬度亚洲大陆东岸,祖国东北端的黑龙江省,幅员辽阔,地形复杂,季风气候明显,极端天气气候事件导致的灾害比较频繁.暴雨洪涝、干旱、低温冻害、暴雪、沙尘暴、冰雹、大雾、雷暴、龙卷、大风等气象灾害每年造成的损失占本省整个自然灾害损失的70%左右,对人民的生产生活造成极大损失.尤其是近10余年来黑龙江省发生极端天气气候事件频繁.     

Climate change and extreme weather events: can developing countries adapt?

Developing countries are vulnerable to extremes of normal climatic variability, and climate change is likely to increase the frequency and magnitude of some extreme weather events and disasters. Adaptation to climate change is dependent on current adaptive capacity and the development models that are being pursued by developing countries. Various frameworks are available for vulnerability and adaptation (V&A) assessments, and they have both advantages and limitations. Investments in developing countries are more focused on recovery from a disaster than on the creation of adaptive capacity. Extreme climatic events create a spiral of debt burden on developing countries. Increased capacity to manage extreme weather events can reduce the magnitude of economic, social and human damage and eventually, investments, in terms of borrowing money from the lending agencies. Vulnerability to extreme weather events, disaster management and adaptation must be part of long-term sustainable development planning in developing countries. Lending agencies and donors need to reform their investment policies in developing countries to focus more on capacity building instead of just investing in recovery operations and infrastructure development.     

The relationship between extreme weather events and crop losses in central Taiwan

The frequency of extreme weather events, which cause severe crop losses, is increasing. This study investigates the relationship between crop losses and extreme weather events in central Taiwan from 2003 to 2015 and determines the main factors influencing crop losses. Data regarding the crop loss area and meteorological information were obtained from government agencies. The crops were categorised into the following five groups: ‘grains’, ‘vegetables’, ‘fruits’, ‘flowers’ and ‘other crops’. The extreme weather events and their synoptic weather patterns were categorised into six and five groups, respectively. The data were analysed using the z score, correlation coefficient and stepwise regression model. The results show that typhoons had the highest frequency of all extreme weather events (58.3%). The largest crop loss area (4.09%) was caused by two typhoons and foehn wind in succession. Extreme wind speed coupled with heavy rainfall is an important factor affecting the losses in the grain and vegetable groups. Extreme wind speed is a common variable that affects the loss of ‘grains’, ‘vegetables’, ‘fruits’ and ‘flowers’. Consecutive extreme weather events caused greater crop losses than individual events. Crops with long production times suffered greater losses than those with short production times. This suggests that crops with physical structures that can be easily damaged and long production times would benefit from protected cultivation to maintain food security.     

近48a安顺市极端天气事件频率变化

利用1961—2008年安顺市大风、暴雨、雷暴、冰雹、高温、低温、霜冻、雾等极端天气事件的年发生日数资料,采用最小二乘法、M ann-Kendall法等方法诊断分析其变化特征。结果表明:大风、雷暴和低温日呈显著减少趋势,并分别于1972、1984和1986年发生趋势突变;高温、暴雨增多趋势及冰雹和霜冻频数总体趋少变化不显著,其中,冰雹基本处于少变的稳定态势。雾日有增加的趋势,平均10 a增加0.8d。从低温、雷暴、大风、霜冻明显减少的时段来看,其变化与20世纪80年代中期以后的安顺市显著增暖有一定关系。     

大气环流系统组合性异常与极端天气气候事件发生

根据2008年1月我国南方发生的持续严重雨雪冰冻灾害、1998年长江流域的特大洪涝灾害和2009/2010年冬季云南的极端干旱灾害的分析结果,再次强调指出,对于一些小概率的极端天气气候事件的发生,大气环流系统的组合性异常起着极其重要的作用。对于2008年的严重雨雪冰冻灾害的发生,多个大气环流系统的组合性异常包括:乌拉尔山阻塞高压和贝加尔湖-巴尔喀什湖的横槽,这为不断有冷空气从西路向南爆发提供了条件;东亚和日本地区的高度正异常使得北方冷空气的势力不是很强,适于锋面在我国南岭及其以北地区较长时间停留,为持续降水确立了背景;西太平洋副高偏强和偏西也对冷空气的向南推进起了阻挡作用;印-缅槽的持续偏强和西太平洋副高的偏强共同使暖湿空气源源不断地输送到华南地区,有利持续降水的发生,为冰冻造成了条件。对于1998年夏季长江流域的特大洪涝的发生,多个环流系统的异常包括:夏季西南季风涌的活动,西太平洋副热带高压活动,北方冷空气活动和青藏高原对流系统东传的共同作用。对于2009/2010年冬季云南的极端干旱灾害的发生,多个环流系统的异常包括:对流层高层中东地区副热带西风急流减弱,影响Rossby波的活动,不利于青藏高原-孟加拉湾槽的建立;西太平洋副热带高压偏强、位置略为偏南,对低层水汽输入云南起到抑制作用;NAO的负异常所导致的遥相关波列异常,使得东亚北方冷空气活动偏东,不易到达云南地区,还使得南支槽偏弱,暖湿气流也不易到达云南地区。ENSO虽然对中国天气气候变化有相当重要的影响,但并非每次异常天气气候事件的发生都是它的直接影响。对于ENSO影响必须具体分析,才能决定它在异常事件、特别是极端天气气候事件中的确切作用。     

全球变暖与城市效应共同作用下的极端天气气候事件变化的最新认知

近年来,城市气候变化问题引起高度关注。综合IPCC第一工作组第六次评估报告(IPCC AR6)关于气候变暖背景下城市对极端天气气候事件影响的评估,本文得到以下科学认识：城市化加剧了局部气候变暖,全球许多城市都面临更多更强的高温热浪事件;城市化使得诸多城市区域及其下风向极端降水增加,地表径流加强;沿海城市受到日益加剧的与海平面上升有关的复合型洪水的影响;城市污染物排放和不利通风的建筑结构加剧了区域污染,同时增加了地表的臭氧含量。预计未来城市极端高温、极端降水及有关洪水事件将更为频发,空气污染形势更为严峻,气候变化风险进一步加大。中国城镇化进程迅速,需要进一步加强气候变化背景下城市极端事件的观测、形成机理和数值模拟研究,以提升城市极端事件风险认识水平和应对能力。     

Impacts of, and adaptation options to, extreme weather events and climate change concerning thermal power plants

Extreme weather events and changed climate parameters have impacts on power plants and their connected infrastructures. Therefore, adaptation, especially in the context of a changing climate and a resulting shift in the intensity and frequency of extreme events, is necessary. Thermal power plants are subject to a diversity of extreme weather impacts, making them vulnerable if not adapted. In this paper, the impacts of extreme weather events on thermal power plants are first identified and structured. Then selected adaptation options for thermal power plants are presented. Three major types of adaptation option are identified: adaptation of cooling, infrastructure, and sites. The Supplementary Material introduces a GIS-based (Geographic Information System) decision-support tool for power plant adaptation and planning.     

极端天气气候事件变化对荒漠化、土地退化和粮食安全的影响

土地是人类赖以生存的重要资源,在受气候变化影响的同时其状况变化也在气候系统中起着关键作用。IPCC最新发布的气候变化与土地特别报告（SRCCL）系统反映了关于荒漠化、土地退化、可持续土地管理、粮食安全和陆地生态系统碳通量方面的最新科学认知,并探讨了如何进行更加可持续性的土地利用和管理以应对与土地相关的气候变化问题。文中从极端事件变化及其影响的角度,结合SRCCL与其他相关文献,予以分析和总结。结果表明,在全球变暖的背景下,极端天气气候事件的变化已经并将继续影响荒漠化和土地退化进程并对粮食安全造成冲击;而土地对气候系统的反馈作用,又会加剧气候变化并提高极端事件发生的概率和严重程度。面对气候变化尤其是极端事件给土地带来的巨大压力,必须坚持可持续的土地管理,通过减少包括土地和粮食系统在内的所有行业的排放,才有可能实现到21世纪末将全球平均升温控制在相对工业化前水平2℃以内的目标,以减轻气候变化对土地和粮食系统的负面影响。     

Simulated changes in daily rainfall intensity due to the enhanced greenhouse effect: implications for extreme rainfall events

In this study we present rainfall results from equilibrium 1 ×– and 2 × CO₂ experiments with the CSIRO 4-level general circulation model. The 1 × CO₂ results are discussed in relation to observed climate. Discussion of the 2 × CO₂ results focuses upon changes in convective and non-convective rainfall as simulated in the model, and the consequences these changes have for simulated daily rainfall intensity and the frequency of heavy rainfall events. In doing this analysis, we recognize the significant shortcomings of GCM simulations of precipitation processes. However, because of the potential significance of any changes in heavy rainfall events as a result of the enhanced greenhouse effect, we believe a first examination of relevant GCM rainfall results is warranted. Generally, the model results show a marked increase in rainfall originating from penetrative convection and, in the mid-latitudes, a decline in largescale (non-convective) rainfall. It is argued that these changes in rainfall type are a consequence of the increased moisture holding capacity of the warmer atmosphere simulated for 2 × CO₂ conditions. Related to changes in rainfall type, rainfall intensity (rain per rain day) increases in the model for most regions of the globe. Increases extend even to regions where total rainfall decreases. Indeed, the greater intensity of daily rainfall is a much clearer response of the model to increased greenhouse gases than the changes in total rainfall. We also find a decrease in the number of rainy days in the middle latitudes of both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. To further elucidate these results daily rainfall frequency distributions are examined globally and for four selected regions of interest. In all regions the frequency of high rainfall events increases, and the return period of such events decreases markedly. If realistic, the findings have potentially serious practical implications in terms of an increased frequency and severity of floods in most regions. However, we discuss various important sources of uncertainty in the results presented, and indicate the need for rainfall intensity results to be examined in enhanced greenhouse experiments with other GCMs.     

Experience is not enough: A dynamic explanation of the limited adaptation to extreme weather events in public organizations

This study advances theory articulating the micro-level processes behind public organization adaptation to extreme weather. It tackles a persistent puzzle about the limited adaptation to extreme weather among public organizations: why does adaptation remain deficit after public organizations have experienced repeated extreme weather and some catastrophic consequences? We develop a computational agent-based model that integrates extant theory and data from semi-structured interviews of U.S. public transit agency managers, and use the model to investigate how micro-level cognition and behavior interact with environmental constraints to facilitate or impede the diffusion of adaptation. We articulate in greater detail how experience with influential extreme weather events matters to adaptation, highlighting that such experience is insufficient for adaptation to occur. A key insight is that the potential benefits from both increased risk perception and additional financial resources stemming from disaster- or non-disaster-induced opportunities can be underutilized, absent effective coupling between heightened risk perception and availability of resources that creates windows for adaptation. Using this insight, we further identify managerial and policy interventions with maximum leverage to promote adaptation to extreme weather in public organizations. The experiments show that slowing risk perception decay and synchronizing opportunities with extreme weather occurrences can stimulate adaptation.     

中巴经济走廊极端低温事件风险评估

危险性、暴露度、脆弱性是极端低温事件风险评估的关键因素。基于1961—2015年中巴经济走廊地区逐日最低气温、人口和耕地等数据,选取极端低温事件强度、频次、持续时间,人口密度,耕地面积占比,植被覆盖度,数字高程模型（DEM),脆弱人口比重和性别比重9个指标,采用层次分析法和熵权法确定各指标组合权重,对中巴经济走廊地区极端低温事件进行风险评估,实现了中巴经济走廊极端低温事件不同风险等级（低、较低、中、较高、高风险）的区划。研究表明,中巴经济走廊内极端低温事件风险分布具有显著的空间差异,极端低温事件风险受极端低温事件强度、人口密度和地形影响较大。区域内绝大部分地区属于低风险地区,高风险地区有巴基斯坦的阿扎德克什米尔地区、吉尔吉特-巴尔蒂斯坦地区、开普省地区、联邦直辖部落地区和中国的喀什地区。其中,阿扎德克什米尔高风险面积占比最高（约35%),联邦直辖部落地区较高风险面积占比最高（约7.7%),吉尔吉特-巴尔蒂斯坦地区中风险地区面积占比最高（约24.6%);中风险地区占比超过10%的还有开普省（12.5%)、阿扎德克什米尔（20%)、联邦直辖部落地区（10.2%)、中国喀什地区（14.3%)。评估结果与历史灾情吻合,可为区域气象灾害风险评估和防灾减灾提供参考。     

Drivers of response to extreme weather warnings among marine fishermen

Extreme weather events, such as storms and cyclones, pose dire occupational hazards in marine fishing. Thus, warnings against such events can reduce risks to the life and property of fishing communities. This study is an attempt to assess the factors driving fishermen’s decision to respond to weather warnings. Mixed methods, such as exploratory fieldwork, literature review, and focus group discussions, helped in identifying the available weather warnings and hypothesizing the probable factors influencing response to the warnings in the marine fishing community in Maharashtra, India. The plausible drivers of response include perceived potential risk, credibility of the warning and its disseminators, community social capital, and other demographic characteristics. Data from a household survey, comprising 601 fishermen, is used to empirically test the hypotheses. The results suggest that trust in the source and disseminator of the warning is related to higher response rates. There is heterogeneity in the role of community social capital as a motivator to respond. Further, fishermen perceiving traditional information to be more reliable are less likely to respond frequently to the warnings. The findings of the study are relevant for designing interventions which can prompt high response rates to weather warnings from fishermen.     

500 hPa位势高度场极端天气事件的NCEP集合概率预报效果分析

基于百分位方法,首先通过构建气候等概率区间得到了位势高度场极端天气事件区分方法,并给出了相应的预报结果检验评价方案;以此为基础,对2003年夏季亚欧区域的500hPa位势高度场极端天气事件的NCEP集合概率预报效果进行了深入分析,得到如下结论：1）分析时段和区域内的极端事件的发生频率比气候平均状况略偏高。NCEP集合预报系统对异常偏低的极端事件的预报易偏高,但相对比较可靠;对相对异常偏高极端事件的预报频率随着预报时效的增大而减小,时效小于3d时预报频率偏高,时效大于5d时显著偏低,预报可靠性相对差一些。2）EV（economic value,经济价值）分析表明,NCEP集合预报系统对偏高（低）极端事件的概率预报效果明显高于正常天气事件。3）预报命中率分析表明,在高概率阈值下,预报命中率较低,这与预报系统在部分个例中的不发散有关。随着概率阈值的降低,预报命中率稳步提高,说明集合成员的发散使之可以覆盖实况可能出现的区间,从而得到更好的预报效果。     

2018年7月北半球极端天气气候事件及环流特征分析

2018年7月北半球天气气候显著异常,极端事件高发。欧洲、北非、东亚以及北美的大部分地区均遭受严重的高温热浪侵袭;印度、东南亚、中国西南部以及日本西部等地出现极端降水;西太平洋台风活动异常活跃,移动路径偏北。初步诊断表明,北半球中高纬度,由低层到高层稳定维持的异常高压系统是导致北半球中高纬度大部分地区高温热浪持续发生的直接原因。其中异常偏强、偏北的副热带高压,以及增强、东伸的南亚高压与东亚地区持续高温和极端降水事件直接相关;低层菲律宾周围异常活跃的对流活动和强盛的西南水汽输送共同导致南亚、东南亚地区极端降水发生。热带太平洋大部分地区偏暖的海温条件和菲律宾附近异常气旋性环流则与异常活跃的台风活动有关。更需要关注的是,北半球尤其是东亚地区大气环流的异常主要受海洋表面热力状况以及其他区域大气环流遥相关的影响。