跨断层长输油(气)管道抗震研究与实践

概述了输油（气）管道跨断层抗震研究与实践的现状，总结了判断地表断裂位移的两种经验统计方法和覆盖土层场地地表断裂的分析判断方法，评述了用这些方法得到的结果。对常用的跨断层管道抗震分析方法进行了评述，并列举了我国管道工程中可行的抗震措施。     

强震作用下跨断层管道柔性接口抗震加固研究

强烈地震引起的地面永久性大变形是导致埋地供水管线损坏的主要威胁之一。该研究借鉴链式结构的设计思想,基于传统承插式管道接口形式,研发了一种新型管道抗震接口,其可支持一定的轴向伸缩自由变形。当接口变形量达至极限状态时,接口发生自锁现象并能提供较高的抗拉承载力,进而带动相邻管道滑移,以抵消断层错动引起的变形量。针对新型抗震接口开展了轴向力学性能试验,并建立了跨断层下的管线数值模型;同时,数值结果与相关全尺寸试验进行对比验证。该研究以土体压实条件和断层穿越管道位置作为关键变量,研究了加固前后断层错动下承插式管道的力学响应。研究结果表明：提出的抗震接口能够有效地提高管道抵抗地面大变形能力,并且提高接口的轴向抗拉拔能力是提升管道抗断层错动能力的关键;对于松砂土跨断层下的承插式管道接口震损较为严重;断层穿越管道不同的位置会造成不同的接口变形规律;国内规范中管道接口的转角限值过于保守,不利于对跨断层承插式管道安全性能进行合理验算。     

跨断层埋地管道抗震试验

首次进行了跨断层理地管道抗震试验,取得了一些有益的结论．     

跨越断层地下管线震害因素分析

地下管线抗震安全性问题是生命线地震工程的重要研究内容,大量震害表明地下管线,特别是跨越断层的地下管线具有极大的脆弱性。分析跨断层地下管线的震害影响因素,制定有效的工程措施对于提高实际地下管线的抗震性能具有重要意义。本文回顾了地下管线遭受震害的历史背景,主要从断层参数、地震及场地参数以及管道参数三个角度分析了影响跨越断层地下管线震害的因素。在这些震害因素分析以及前人工作总结的基础上,从宏观角度和具体措施两个方面,提出了一些跨断层地下管道抗震的措施。     

跨断层水泥管试验的有限元分析

在考虑管道的材料非线性和几何非线性、管土相互作用的非线性和管道接口非线性的基础上,建立了由管体梁单元、三向土弹簧单元和接口单元组成的埋地非连续管道在断层位移作用下的有限元模型,并以美国密歇根大学Junhee等(2010)所做的跨断层水泥管试验为原型进行了模拟分析。有限元结果给出的水泥管最终变形、接口转角、接口位移与实验结果基本一致,表明本文提出的跨断层埋地非连续管道抗震计算的有限元分析方法具有一定的合理性。有限元结果和试验结果都表明,在逆冲断层作用下,水泥管的破坏主要是因为在管道接口处的轴向压力和弯矩的耦合作用,在断层附近的管道接口承受了较大的转动和压缩位移。本文所提出的分析方法可推广到埋地非连续管道在其它永久地面变形作用下的有限元分析。     

跨断层隔震管道管端与土体相互作用分析

断层错动是造成埋地管道破坏的重要因素之一,因此,跨断层埋地管道在断层错动下的破坏机制、模型设计与参数分析和管道抗断层措施一直是生命线工程的前沿问题。对跨断层管道内力分析取得的成果较多,比较经典的是Newm ark-Hall方法、Kennedy方法和王汝梁方法,后来又出现基于壳模型的有限元分析方法。现有的管道抗断层措施具有其优点的同时亦有其不足。本文基于壳模型的有限元动力数值模拟,对一种管道跨断层隔震措施进一步研究,考虑管端与土体相互作用计算隔震管段的断层错动响应。计算结果表明拉应变容易在土中的管段传递,相比较而言,压应变不容易在土中的管段传递;最大拉应变降低比较多,最大压应变降低比较少。根据分析结果,对跨断层隔震管段边界条件的选取提出建议。     

跨断层桥梁抗震设防启示及建议

分析了跨断层桥梁结构所面临的地震破坏风险;总结了国内外历次地震中跨断层桥梁的震害案例;结合本领域国内外新近研究成果,对我国现行抗震规范和地震安全性评价相关内容的合理性进行了讨论;最后在上述研究的基础上,从设防策略、组织架构、设计参数、后续研究内容等方面提出建议,以促进跨断层桥梁抗震研究发展和相关规范完善。     

跨断层隔震管道分析

埋地管道在断层错动作用下的内力分析及其抗震措施一直是生命线工程的一个重要问题与研究热点。对地下管道在断层错位下的响应计算,取得的成果较多,比较经典的有Newmark-Hall方法和Kennedy方法。后来又出现基于壳模型的简化方法,如高田至郎提出的简化计算方法等。相对来讲,关于管道抗震措施的研究成果较少。本文提出一种抗震措施,进行了基于壳模型的有限元动力数值模拟,并与4种松到中密场地土条件下的埋地管道断层错位响应进行对比分析。计算结果表明,本方法中三种长度管道的最大轴向拉应变远小于埋地管道的最大轴向拉应变,而且最大轴向压应变亦不大。     

考虑土结相互作用的逆断层作用下埋地管道性能离心机试验

埋地管道地震作用下的破坏因素源于地震引起的永久地面变形(PGD),其中管道-土体间相互作用决定土体位移作用到管体的大小。利用离心机试验技术模拟埋地管道在逆断层大位移下的反应特性,重点讨论断层与管道的交角、断层位移大小、管土相互作用、管径和埋深五个参数对管道破坏的影响水平。实验结果表明:上述参数对管道断层作用的反应均有明显影响,其中断层的位移量、管土相互作用、埋深和管径的影响更为显著。本文的研究结果对于管道经过断层区的抗震设计有十分重要的意义。     

管道抗震设计规范有关地震作用的综述

本文通过介绍中国、日本、美国、英国、挪威的相关管道抗震规范,阐述了目前管道应变设计和性能设计的理念、方法以及对地震作用输入的要求。通过比较各国管道抗震设计规范,保证震后管道维持其服务功能的抗震设计理念已经得到了全世界范围的认可。现在的管道设计正向性能设计的方向发展,并提出了两级抗震设防的方法。其中,第二级以管道不发生泄漏为抗震设防目标,对管道的地震安全性评价工作提出了更高的要求,管道设计需要的地震动和地面永久变形参数也越来越多。在目前管道工程的地震安全性评价工作中,存在概率方法和确定性方法这两种方法并举的局面。针对管道的抗液化和滑坡设计,地面永久位移可以利用分解的地震安全性评价概率方法得到。针对管道的抗断设计,断层未来位错量的估计方法现在仍以确定性方法为主,概率方法因为断层位错量沿着破裂带的分布较为复杂仍有待进一步研究。     

Effects of pipe outlet blocking on hydrological functioning in a degraded blanket peatland

Peatland restoration practitioners are keen to understand the role of drainage via natural soil pipes, especially where erosion has released large quantities of fluvial carbon in stream waters. However, little is known about pipe-to-stream connectivity and whether blocking methods used to impede flow in open ditch networks and gullies also work on pipe networks. Two streams in a heavily degraded blanket bog (southern Pennines, UK) were used to assess whether impeding drainage from pipe networks alters the streamflow responses to storm events, and how such intervention affects the hydrological functioning of the pipe network and the surrounding peat. Pipeflow was impeded in half of the pipe outlets in one stream, either by inserting a plug-like structure in the pipe-end or by the insertion of a vertical screen at the pipe outlet perpendicular to the direction of the predicted pipe course. Statistical response variable η² showed the overall effects of pipe outlet blocking on stream responses were small with η² = 0.022 for total storm runoff, η² = 0.097 for peak discharge, η² = 0.014 for peak lag, and η² = 0.207 for response index. Both trialled blocking methods either led to new pipe outlets appearing or seepage occurring around blocks within 90 days of blocking. Discharge from four individual pipe outlets was monitored for 17 months before blocking and contributed 11.3% of streamflow. Pipe outlets on streambanks with headward retreat produced significantly larger peak flows and storm contributions to streamflow compared to pipe outlets that issued onto straight streambank sections. We found a distinctive distance-decay effect of the water table around pipe outlets, with deeper water tables around pipe outlets that issued onto straight streambanks sections. We suggest that impeding pipeflow at pipe outlets would exacerbate pipe development in the gully edge zone, and propose that future pipe blocking efforts in peatlands prioritize increasing the residence time of pipe water by forming surface storage higher up the pipe network.     

Effect of air mobility in a soil pipe on water flow through a model hillslope after pipe clogging

Soil pipes (continuous macropores expanding laterally in the soil subsurface) are a key factor controlling hillslope water cycles and sediment transport. Soil pipes usually enhance slope stability under rainfall events through their high water drainage ability, and pipe clogging by sediments is regarded as a risk for slope failure. In this study, we conducted a bench-scale pipe clogging experiment to clarify the effect of air mobility in soil pipes on water flow and water pressure build-up in the slope at the clogged point. Before pipe clogging, the soil pipe drained rainwater effectively and lowered the groundwater table. After the pipe clogging event, the mobility of air in the soil pipe before the clogging determined the water flow in the slope. When the air in the soil pipe connected to the atmosphere and moved freely, the water level in the soil pipe increased at the pipe clogging, and water pressure build-up was limited near the pipe outlet. On the other hand, when air in the soil pipe was entrapped by the clogging, water pressure suddenly increased, and the groundwater table of the whole slope rose correspondingly. This study clearly demonstrated the importance of pipe morphology with respect to air connectivity between the pipe and atmosphere to elucidate the water flow and slope stability during the pipe clogging event. © 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

EFFECTS OF WELL CASING ON POTENTIAL FIELD MEASUREMENTS USING DOWNHOLE CURRENT SOURCES1

A mathematical formulation for the electric potential from point current-sources coaxial with a metal casing has been obtained. The excitation caused by the axial point-sources will produce currents in the pipe. By assuming that the pipe can be divided into many cylindrical ring segments with constant axially-directed current, the solution of the fields inside and outside the pipe can be formulated in an integral form. The integral equation applied to the segmented pipe yields a set of simultaneous linear equations which are solved for the currents in the pipe; these are then used to calculate the potentials anywhere outside the pipe in the medium. This solution has been used to study the distribution of the potentials in a half-space for a single current-source at and beyond the bottom of a finite length of casing. For a casing 0.1 m in radius and 0.006 m in wall thickness with a conductivity of 10⁶ S/m, in a half-space of 10^-2 S/m, it was found that only in a region very near the pipe does the pipe exert substantial influence on the fields of a point-source 100 casing diameters beyond the end of the pipe. It appears that cross-hole resistivity surveys can be implemented without corrections for the casing if the source is located at least 50–100 casing diameters beyond the end of the casing. Hole-to-surface surveys are much more affected by the pipe. For a pipe-source separation of 100 casing diameters, the surface measurements must not be closer than a half pipe length for a 5% or less field distortion.     

Use of incipient motion data for backward erosion piping models

Backward erosion piping involves the gradual removal of granular material under the action of water flow from the foundation of a dam or levee, whereby shallow pipes are formed that grow in the direction opposite to the flow. This pipe-forming process can ultimately lead to failure of a water-retaining structure and is considered one of the most important failure mechanisms for dikes and levees in the Netherlands and the United States. Modeling of this mechanism requires the assessment of hydraulic conditions in the pipe, which are controlled by the particle equilibrium at the pipe wall. Since the pipe's dimensions are controlled by the inflow to the pipe from the porous medium, the flow through the pipe is thought to be laminar for fine- to medium-grained sands. The literature provides data for incipient motion in laminar flow, which is reviewed here and complemented with data from backward erosion experiments. The experiments illustrate the applicability of the laminar incipient motion data to determine the erosion pipe dimensions and corresponding pipe hydraulics for fine- to medium-grained sands, for the purpose of backward erosion piping modeling.     

Transport measurement with a horizontal and a vertical pipe microphone in a mountain stream: taking account of particle saltation

The pipe microphone has been shown to be an effective means for monitoring bedload transport in mountain streams. It is commonly installed perpendicular to the flow direction on a stable river bed, such as that of a check dam. Acoustic pulses caused by bedload collisions with the pipe are detected by a microphone. However, bedload particles saltating over the pipe remain undetected. To overcome this disadvantage, we installed a horizontal as well as a vertical pipe microphone in the Ashi‐arai‐dani supercritical channel located in the Hodaka mountain range, Japan. The vertical pipe was installed on the wall of the channel and the horizontal pipe was installed on the channel bed. The acoustic response of the horizontal pipe is expected to be larger than that of the vertical pipe, because the bedload concentration decreases with increasing height above the bed. However, at high amplifications, the peak pulse value from the vertical pipe is higher than that from the horizontal pipe. We explain this observation as follows: under high bedload discharge conditions, the pulses of the horizontal pipe are saturated but those of the vertical pipe are not. We proposed a ratio (R_hv) between the pulses detected by these sensors, and applied this ratio for calibrating the contemporaneous pulses detected by a microphone located immediately upstream of a bedload slot sampler. Indeed the R_hv‐corrected pulses correlated well with the bedload discharge calculated from the sampler, supporting our explanation. We conclude that bedload monitoring using concomitant vertical and horizontal pipe microphones can be used to calibrate centrally located pipe microphones when the bedload concentration is approximately homogeneous laterally across the width of the channel cross‐section, and thereby represent bedload discharges more accurately than with only a single pipe microphone. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Determination of the role of entrapped air in water flow in a closed soil pipe using a laboratory experiment

Soil pipes, continuous macropores parallel to the soil surface, are an important factor in hillslope hydrological processes. However, the water flow dynamics in soil pipes, especially closed soil pipes, are not well understood. In this study, the water and air dynamics within closed soil pipes have been investigated in a bench‐scale laboratory experiment by using a soil box with an artificial acrylic soil pipe. In order to grasp the state of water and air within the soil pipe, we directly measured the existing soil pipe flow and air pressure in the soil pipe. The laboratory experiment showed that air in the soil pipe had an important role in the water flow in the closed soil pipe. When air entrapment occurred in the soil pipe before the soil matrix around the soil pipe was saturated with water, water intrusion in the soil pipe was prevented by air entrapped in the pipe, which inhibited the soil pipe flow. This air entrapment in the soil pipe was controlled by the soil water and air flow. Moreover, after the soil pipe flow started, the soil pipe was not filled completely with water even when the soil pipe was completely submerged under the groundwater table. The entrapped air in the soil pipe prevented further water intrusion in the soil pipe.     

A new proposal for simplified design of buried steel pipes crossing active faults

Simplified design methods for obtaining the maximum strain in pipelines crossing active faults proposed by Newmark, Kennedy and Wang have not considered the section deformation of the pipe. In this study, a new simplified method is developed for obtaining the maximum strain in steel pipes crossing faults considering non‐linearity of material and geometry of pipe section. It is assumed that the pipe will bend near the fault and the geometry of pipe in the longitudinal direction will change according to a bent deformation. On the other hand, the relation between maximum strain and bent angle has been obtained using a beam–shell hybrid FEM for different pipe‐fault conditions. The developed method can be used for calculating the maximum strains for fault‐crossing steel pipes with different angles of crossing both in tension and compression, by considering the deformation of the pipe cross‐section. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley Sons, Ltd.     

Determining the location of buried plastic water pipes from measurements of ground surface vibration

‘Mapping the Underworld’ is a UK-based project, which aims to create a multi-sensor device that combines complementary technologies for remote buried utility service detection and location. One of the technologies to be incorporated in the device is low-frequency vibro-acoustics, and techniques for detecting buried infrastructure, in particular plastic water pipes, are being investigated. One of the proposed techniques involves excitation of the pipe at some known location with concurrent vibrational mapping of the ground surface in order to infer the location of the remainder of the pipe. In this paper, measurements made on a dedicated pipe rig are reported. Frequency response measurements relating vibrational velocity on the ground to the input excitation were acquired. Contour plots of the unwrapped phase revealed the location of the pipe to within 0.1-0.2 m. Magnitude contour plots revealed the excitation point and also the location of the pipe end. By examining the unwrapped phase gradients along a line above the pipe, it was possible to identify the wave-type within the pipe responsible for the ground surface vibration. Furthermore, changes in the ground surface phase speed computed using this method enabled the location of the end of the pipe to be confirmed.     

Pipe Service Age Effect on Chlorine Decay in Drinking‐Water Transmission and Distribution Systems

Maintaining acceptable quality of water transported in the transmission and distribution system requires the chlorination of water beyond the treatment plant. While flowing through pipes, the chlorine concentration decreases for different reasons. Reaction with the pipe material itself and the reaction with both the biofilm and tubercles formed on the pipe wall are known as pipe wall demand. This varies with pipe parameters. The aim of this paper was to assess the impact of the service age of pipes on the chlorine wall decay constant. One hundred and fifty three pipe sections of different sizes and four different pipe materials were collected and tested for their chlorine first‐order wall decay constants. The results showed that pipe service age was an important factor that must not be ignored. For the range of the 55 years of pipe service age used in this study, the change in the wall decay ranged from 8 to 531% of the corresponding values in the recently installed pipes. The effect of service age on the wall decay constants was most evident in steel pipes. Other important findings were reached.     

城市供水管网震害概率预测

根据概率可靠性理论,计算了地震作用下地下直埋管道的各个震害等级的概率值。假定在一段管子中,其破坏为泊松公布,求得这段管道供水的可靠性,最后用并联和串联分析法,得出整个供水管网的供水可靠性。通过实际计算,结果较理想。