Evaporation and radiation heat balance at the soil surface

Summary Evaporation from an area covered with short clover-grass has been determined by means of evapotranspirometers (4 m²), open (12 m²) and screened (1/3 m²) evaporimeters, and it has been estimated on the basis ofPenman's andThornthwaite's theories, too. The results of the measurements with the various instruments are compared with each other and with the results derived from the cited theories.Further, radiation heat balances have been made, including evaporation and heating of soil and atmosphere.

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Zusammenfassung Die Verdunstung über einer mit kurzem Kleegras bedeckten Fläche wurde mittels Evapotranspirometern (4 m²), offenen (12 m²) und abgeschirmten (1/3 m²) Evaporimetern gemessen und auch auf Grund vonPenmans undThornthwaites Theorien berechnet. Die Meßergebnisse der verschiedenen Instrumente werden untereinander verglichen und auch den mittels der angeführten Theorien abgeleiteten Resultaten gegenübergestellt.Weiters wurde eine Strahlungs-Wärme-Bilanz aufgestellt, die auch die Verdunstung und die Erwärmung von Boden und Atmosphäre berücksichtigt.

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Résumé On a mesuré l'évaporation sur une surface recouverte de trèfle court à l'aide d'évapotranspiromètres (4 m²) et d'évaporimètres ouverts (12 m²) et protégés (1/3 m²); les résultats de mesures, furent comparés entre eux et avec la théorie dePenman etThornthwaite.Puis on a dressé un bilan radiatif tenant compte, de l'évaporation et du réchauffement du sol et de l'atmosphère.

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With 8 Figures     

Some experiences with the calibration of radiation balance meters

Summary It is shown that an iceblock with a hemispherical cavity can be used with good results as a convenient blackbody for the calibration, in the long-wave region, of ventilated radiation balance meters, i. e. in the work under consideration, theCourvoisier and theSchulze balance meters. For both these instruments it has been found that the sensitivity for long-wave radiation is approximately 20% less than for short-wave radiation using the sun as source; for theSchulze instrument the difference depends besides on solar altitude, a result which previously has been reported among others byAmbach, Beschorner andHoinkes [1]. It is further shown that theSchulze radiation balance meter should thermally be better insulated. The results of the described calibration method seem to be confirmed by comparative measurements carried out in Hamburg. The results of the calibration, reported here, will have some bearing on the constants in the linear regression equation between atmospheric radiation and blackbody radiation at air temperature, given byH. Schieldrup Paulsen andK. A. Torheim [9, 10].

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Zusammenfassung Es wird gezeigt, da? ein Eisblock mit halbkugelf?rmiger Aush?hlung sich gut als Schwarzer K?rper für die Eichung ventilierter Strahlungsbilanzmesser im Langwelligen eignet, wie sie in der vorliegenden Untersuchung für die Strahlungsbilanzmesser vonCourvoisier undSchulze durchgeführt wird. Für diese beiden Ger?te hat sich gezeigt, da? bei Benützung der Sonne als Lichtquelle die Empfindlichkeit für langwellige Strahlung ungef?hr 20% geringer ist als für kurzwellige; für das Instrument vonSchulze h?ngt dieser Unterschied auch von der Sonnenh?he ab, was schon früher u. a. vonAmbach, Beschorner undHoinkes [1] festgestellt wurde. Auch ergab sich, da? dieses Instrument thermisch besser isoliert sein sollte. Die Ergebnisse der hier beschriebenen Eichmethode scheinen durch Vergleichsmessungen in Hamburg ihre Best?tigung zu finden. Die hier besprochenen Eichresultate werden gewisse Konsequenzen für die Konstanten der linearen Regressionsgleichung zwischen atmosph?rischer Strahlung und Schwarzk?rperstrahlung bei Lufttemperatur haben, die vonH. Schieldrup Paulsen undK. A. Torheim [9, 10] angegeben wurden.

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Résumé On démontre ici qu'un bloc de glace portant une cavité hémisphérique convient bien comme corps noir pour l'étalonnage des appareils ventilés pour la mesure du bilan radiatif à longues ondes. Dans le cas présent, on en démontre l'efficacité pour les bilanmètres deCourvoisier et deSchulze. Il est apparu pour ces deux instruments que si l'on utilise le soleil comme source de lumière, la sensibilité est d'environ 20% inférieure pour le rayonnement à longues ondes que pour celui à ondes courtes. En outre, pour l'appareil deSchulze, cette différence dépend également de la hauteur du soleil, ce qui avait déjà été constaté antérieurement entre autres parAmbach, Beschorner etHoinkes [1]. Il est enfin apparu que cet appareil devrait être mieux isolé du point de vue thermique. Les résultats des méthodes d'étalonnage décrites ici semblent être confirmés par des mesures comparatives effectuées à Hambourg. Les résultats d'étalonnage discutés ici auront certaines répercussions sur les constantes de l'équation de régression linéaire entre le rayonnement de l'atmosphère et celui d'un corps noir à la température de l'air, équation indiquée parH. Schieldrup Paulsen etK. A. Torheim [9, 10].

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With 2 Figures     

Crop residue effects on surface radiation and energy balance — review

Summary Crop residues alter the surface properties of soils. Both shortwave albedo and longwave emissivity are affected. These are linked to an effect of residue on surface evaporation and water content. Water content influences soil physical properties and surface energy partitioning. In summary, crop residue acts to soil as clothing acts to skin. Compared to bare soil, crop residues can reduce extremes of heat and mass fluxes at the soil surface. Managing crop residues can result in more favorable agronomic soil conditions. This paper reviews research results of the quantity, quality, architecture, and surface distribution of crop residues on soil surface radiation and energy balances, soil water content, and soil temperature.With 6 Figures     

2011年2月—2012年1月东南极高原辐射平衡观测研究

利用东南极高原熊猫-1自动气象站2011年2月—2012年1月观测的辐射资料和相关资料,对辐射分量和辐射平衡的季节变化进行了研究。结果表明,夏季是东南极高原获得太阳能的主要时段,总辐射通量夏季平均为365.0 W/m²,总量达到2752.1 MJ/m²,占全年总辐射量的58%。各个季节均能出现总辐射瞬时值大于大气顶水平总辐射,春季发生频率最高,冬季最小,总辐射平均日变化呈单峰型。大气长波辐射除夏季外,日变化不明显。冰雪面长波辐射除冬季外,各季节平均日变化呈明显的单峰单谷型。净辐射12月和1月为很小的正值,其他月份为负值。年平均净辐射为 -8.7 W/m²,表明地表相对于大气为冷源。该站的辐射平衡特征与其他南极内陆高原站相似,雪面具有强烈的辐射冷却效应,导致净辐射绝对值都小于下降风区。     

Sensitivity studies on the calculation of the radiation balance of urban surfaces: I. Shortwave radiation

A rigorous model is developed to calculate the shortwave radiation incident on building surfaces, based on radiation enclosure theory. When compared with field measurements, the model predictions are found to be associated with errors of approximately 10 W m^–2, with underestimations of 5–10 W m^–2 being caused on some walls by neglect of specular reflections. The effects of various simplifying assumptions are tested. The assumption of isotropic sky radiation and the neglect of multiple reflections are found to lead to errors of 15 W m^–2 or less; the neglect of horizon obstructions and the use of albedos taken from the literature instead of measured values can result in errors of 50 W m^–2 or more. Although these magnitudes of errors are site-specific, it is concluded that the use of simplifications in the modelling of shortwave radiation incident on urban surfaces must be approached with care.     

Sensitivity studies on the calculation of the radiation balance of urban surfaces: II. Longwave radiation

The model developed in Verseghy and Munro (1989) is extended to the calculation of the longwave radiation incident on building surfaces. When compared with field measurements, the average magnitude of error associated with model predictions is found to be 10 W m^–2. The effects of six simplifying assumptions are investigated. The neglect of horizon obstructions is found to lead to errors of up to 60 W m^–2; the assumption of wall temperatures equal to air temperatures results in errors of up to 35 W m^–2. The neglect of absorption and emission by air between pairs of walls causes errors of the same magnitude as those associated with the predictions of the rigorous model itself. Of the three remaining simplifying assumptions tested (the assumption of isotrophic sky radiation, the use of published values of emissivities instead of measured values, and the blackbody surface assumption), none results om errors >5 W m^–2. As in the shortware case, the errors are site-specific, but nevertheless indicate the care with which the use of simplifying assumptions must be approached.     

Impact of clouds on the surface radiation balance of the Arctic Ocean

Summary The relationship between clouds and the surface radiative fluxes over the Arctic Ocean are explored by conducting a series of modelling experiments using a one-dimensional thermodynamic sea ice model. The sensitivity of radiative flux to perturbations in cloud fraction and cloud optical depth are determined. These experiments illustrate the substantial effect that clouds have on the state of the sea ice and on the surface radiative fluxes. The effect of clouds on the net flux of radiation at the surface is very complex over the Arctic Ocean particularly due to the presence of the underlying sea ice. Owing to changes in surface albedo and temperature associated with changing cloud properties, there is a strong non-linearity between cloud properties and surface radiative fluxes. The model results are evaluated in three different contexts: 1) the sensitivity of the arctic surface radiation balance to uncertainties in cloud properties; 2) the impact of interannual variability in cloud characteristics on surface radiation fluxes and sea ice surface characteristics; and 3) the impact of climate change and the resulting changes in cloud properties on the surface radiation fluxes and sea ice characteristics.With 11 Figures     

A radiation and energy balance study of mature forest and clear-cut sites

Components of the radiation and energy balances were measured over a clear-cut area and a mature, mixed forest during the summer of 1981 at the Petawawa National Forestry Institute, Chalk River, Ontario. The work concentrated on the clear-cut site which supported a canopy layer composed primarily of bracken fern and logging remnants.Forty days of radiation data were collected at the clear-cut site. After the first four weeks of measurements (the green season), most of the ferns quickly died, and their foliage changed appearance from a green to brownish colour (the brown season). The daily mean reflection coefficient of solar radiation determined over the green season was 0.20 and decreased to 0.13 for the brown season. The corresponding value for the forest was 0.13, based on a limited amount of data. The clear-cut site received 11% and 21% less net radiation than the forest on a 24-hr and daylight-hours basis, respectively, as a consequence of the higher reflection coefficient and larger daytime longwave radiation emission.A reversing temperature difference measurement system (RTDMS), incorporating ten-junction thermopiles was employed at each site in order to determine Bowen ratios () via differential psychrometry. Both systems performed well, especially the RTDMS over the forest which was capable of resolving very small differences of temperature, typically less than 0.2 °C over a height of 3 m. The mean hourly Bowen ratio, calculated from values from 0800 to 1600 hr, varied from 0.2 to 1.0 for the forest and from 0.4 to 0.8 for the clear-cut site in the green season.A significant canopy heat storage component of the energy balance, Q _S , was found at the clear-cut site. In the early morning, a portion of the available energy was used to heat the biomass materials and air within the canopy layer. The stored heat within the canopy was released later in the day, increasing the available energy total.The daily mean value of the Priestley-Taylor coefficient (Priestley and Taylor, 1972) for the green season at the clear-cut site was 1.14, and individual values tended to increase during wet surface conditions and decrease when the surface dried. The daylight mean value during dry canopy conditions at the forest was 1.05, and much higher values occurred when the canopy was wet. The enhancement of for the wet forest was a result of the evaporation of intercepted rain (which is not limited by stomatal resistance) and the concomitant transfer of sensible heat to the forest.     

A two-dimensional energy balance climate model including radiation and ice caps-albedo feedback

A simplified two-dimensional energy balance climate model including the solar and infrared radiation transports, the turbulent exchanges of heat in vertical and horizontal directions and the ice caps-albedo feedback is developed The solutions show that if the atmosphere is considered as a grey body and the grey coefficient depends upon the distributions of absorption medium and cloudiness, both horizontal and vertical distributions of temperature are identical to the observation.On the other hand, comparing the models that the atmosphere is considered as a grey body with ones that the infrared radiation is parameterized as a linear function of temperature, as was considered by Budyko, Sellers(1969), then the results show that even though both of them can obtain the earth's surface temperature in agreement with the observation, the sensitiv ity of the climate to the changes of solar constant is very different. In the former case,the requirement for the ice edge to move southward from the normal 72°N to 50°N(i.e. where the glacial climate would take place) is that the solar constant should decrease by 13% to 16%. However, in the latter case, the climate is highly sensitive to the changes of solar radiation. In this case, the requirement of solar radiation occurring in the glacial climate should decrease by 2% to 6%. According to the investigations mentioned above we must be careful when the parameterizations of the radiation and other processes are conducted in a climate model, otherwise the reliability of the results is suspicious.     

Estimation of net radiation at sea

Abstract

Measurement of net radiation at sea is very difficult whereas, the measurement of global solar radiation or total downward radiation is much less complicated. Hence the dependencies of net radiation on global solar radiation and total downward radiation are studied from hourly Canadian GATE data.

Results show that net radiation can be estimated from measurements of incoming solar radiation or total downward radiation by empirical formulae to an accuracy comparable to that of measurement. However, these formulae must be established from measurements.     

南极瑞穗站雪面热量平衡特征

利用南极瑞穗站(日本)1979年近地面层微气象资料及净辐射、本站气压等资料进行了统计分析。采用鲍文比-能量平衡法求得月平均感热通量和潜热通量,采用热含法计算得出月平均雪面热通量,使用了直接测量的净辐射通量,研究了该站雪面热量平均特征。其中突出的特征是3—12月雪面净辐射值为负值,主要靠感热通量由大气向雪面补充热量。将本文结果与苏联少先队站1956年的结果进行了比较,得出相当一致的年变化规律。最后,得出瑞穗站雪面为一强冷源。     

东亚地区的地表面辐射平衡、热量平衡及冷热源问题的研究

本文是<我国辐射平衡、热量平衡及水分平衡的研究>工作中的一部份。根据我国七十多个日射台站1974年前的全部实测资料,推求出适合于我国实际情况的计算方法。计算了我国300多个台站的太阳辐射各分量(直达辐射、散射、辐射、总辐射)数值。同时设计了计算理论公式的计算图,求得了这些台站的有效辐射量,从而得到我国辐射平衡及其各分量。又根据我国六个台站热量平衡观测资料,得到土壤热交换量与气温变化的关系,确定了土壤热交换量。并采用和计算了与我国邻近的国外几十个台站辐射平衡各分量及研究成果。最后分析了东亚地区的辐射平衡、热量平衡及冷热源的时空分布。     

Surface radiation budget at Barrow,Alaska

Summary At Barrow, the most northerly point in the U.S., radiation measurements were carried out. It was found that multiple reflection between the ground and stratus clouds, due to high surface albedo in winter, enhances the global radiation. These measurements are in agreement with model results. This, together with cloud amount, makes effective transmittance of the atmosphere highest in spring, resulting in the highest values of irradiation in May. For the same cloud amount, the effective transmittance of the atmosphere is always larger in winter, when there is a highly reflective surface, than in summer.Irradiation on a south slope, inclined to latitude (71°) and south wall was higher in spring and fall, but lower than the horizontal in summer. The annual mean was not substantially different for all three surfaces.The net radiation was positive for only three months (June, July, and August). May, with the largest amount of global radiation, displayed values around zero. The high surface albedo reflects most of the incoming radiation back to space, indicating that the net radiation is more controlled by the albedo than by the incoming global radiation.With 11 Figures     

The sea breeze at Venice,as related to daily global solar radiation

Although the sea breeze at Venice and on her hinterland is influenced by orography - mainly the Alps — to the north and the Po Valley to the west, the search for a correlation between the frequency of development of the sea breeze and the daily global solar radiation seems to be desirable, and may be useful for the management of emissions from the industrial area near Venice. Three different cases are examined: (i) the sea breeze occuring in the absence of any appreciable gradient wind; (ii) the sea breeze superimposed on a prevailing wind; (iii) the sea breeze not developing at all. The frequency distributions of these cases related to the global solar radiation at Venice are discussed.