Effects of inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus enrichment on the emission of N<Subscript>2</Subscript>O from a freshwater marsh soil in Northeast China

The freshwater marshes in northern China are heavily impacted by anthropogenic disturbances such as cultivation and fertilization and increased levels of nutrients (especially N and P) through atmospheric deposition and agricultural surface runoff. These disturbances have affected the emission of N₂O from these systems. This laboratory study was conducted to determine the effects of increased inputs of inorganic N and P on N₂O emission from marsh soil in response to different soil moisture conditions. The results showed that the emission of N₂O increased with the enhancement of N inputs when the soil was submerged, but that the highest N treatment suppressed the emission of N₂O when the soil was at 60% water holding capacity (WHC), which may have occurred due to an inadequate amount of available C. Furthermore, the results of this study indicated that a small amount of N fertilizer induced much more N₂O evolution from freshwater wetland soil, while P fertilizer inputs appeared to stimulate the emission of N₂O only during the first few days of the experiment. Additionally, soil that was treated with P appeared to absorb N₂O when it was at 60% WHC after around 6 weeks of the incubation, which indicates that the input of P fertilizer might serve as a shift of source or N₂O sink in wetland soils under non-flooded conditions. When compared to soil at 60% WHC, submerged soil had significantly higher N₂O emissions, except when subjected to the medial N treatment. These findings indicate that the soil moisture condition had a significant effect on N₂O emissions when the same amount of N or P was applied. Therefore, the effects of N and P fertilization in the northern temperate wetlands cannot be neglected from regional or national emissions of N₂O.     

Nitrous oxide emissions from different land use patterns in a typical karst region, Southwest China

Fluxes of nitrous oxide (N2O) from different land use patterns (matured forest, secondary forest, grassland and cropland) in a subtropical karst region of Guizhou Province, Southwest China, were measured for one year with a closed static chamber technique and by gas chromatography. The results showed that soil under different land uses was a source of atmospheric N2O. The cropland was a source with relatively high N2O as compared to forest and grassland, but no significant differences were observed. N2O emissions from soils varied with land use change and fertilizer application. There were two peaks of N2O flux occurred following the combination of two obvious precipitation and fertilizer events in the cultivated land. Converting from the matured forest to secondary forest tended to increase annual emissions of N2O (from 1.40 to 1.65 kg N ha -1 a -1 ), while changing land use from secondary forest to scattered grassland tended to decrease annual emissions of N2O slightly (from 1.65 to 1.45 kg N ha -1 a -1 ). Our range of cumulative annual N2O emission across different land uses (1.40-1.91 kg N ha -1 a -1 ) in a karst region is in general agreement with previously published data in a non-karst region. However, in the maize field, N2O emission factor (EF) was 0.34% for fertilizer application, which is about 71.2% lower than the IPCC default value. It is suggested that current IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) EF methodology could overestimate N2O emission from the karstic cropland. Anyway, the N2O emission from cropland in the karst region would contribute significantly to the global N2O budget, so reducing fertilization frequency during the crop growing season could lead to a decrease in N2O emission in the whole year.     

中国农田的温室气体排放

中国是一个农业大国,拥有约1.33百万平方公里的农田。这些田地的种植、翻耕、施肥、灌溉等管理措施不仅长期改变着农田生态系统中的化学元素循环,而且给全球气候变化带来影响。农业生态系统对全球变化的影响主要是通过改变3种温室气体,即二氧化碳(CO₂)、甲烷(CH4)和氧化亚氮(N₂O)在土壤-大气界面的交换而实现的。为了分析多种因素(如气候、土壤质地、农作物品种及各种农田经营管理措施等)对农业土壤释放CO_22222222     

A review on the mechanism and affecting factors of nitrous oxide emission in constructed wetlands

Constructed wetlands (CWs) are considered important sources of nitrous oxide (N₂O). Various reports in the literature indicate that CWs have high N₂O emission rates. The release of N₂O from CWs treating wastewater emissions range from ?16.7 to 188 mg N₂O m^?2day^?1. N₂O in CWs is produced mainly by nitrification, denitrification, nitrifier denitrification, and nitrate-ammonification. Denitrification is considered the major source of N₂O under most conditions. In recent years, two main methods of sampling N₂O gas in CWs have been employed, including the headspace equilibration technique and the closed static chambers technique. N₂O emission may be affected by various operating parameters and environmental conditions. One of the main environmental factors affecting the removal of nitrogen in CWs is dissolved oxygen, which affects nitrification and denitrification processes, thus greatly influencing N₂O emission. CW gas dynamics is affected mainly by season and weather conditions, especially temperature and moisture. Aquatic plants, flow regime, oxidation–reduction potential, nitrate concentration, C/N ratio and other factors can affect N₂O emission in CWs.     

Nitrous oxide (N<Subscript>2</Subscript>O) emissions from a mesotrophic reservoir on the Wujiang River,southwest China

Aquatic ecosystems have been identified as a globally significant source of nitrous oxide (N₂O) due to continuous active nitrogen involvement, but the processes and influencing factors that control N₂O production are still poorly understood, especially in reservoirs. For that, monthly N₂O variations were monitored in Dongfeng reservoir (DFR) with a mesotrophic condition. The dissolved N₂O concentration in DFR displayed a distinct spatial–temporal pattern but lower than that in the eutrophic reservoirs. During the whole sampling year, N₂O saturation ranging from 144% to 640%, indicating that reservoir acted as source of atmospheric N₂O. N₂O production is induced by the introduction of nitrogen (NO₃ ^?, NH₄ ⁺) in mesotrophic reservoirs, and is also affected by oxygen level and water temperature. Nitrification was the predominate process for N₂O production in DFR due to well-oxygenated longitudinal water layers. Mean values of estimated N₂O flux from the air–water interface averaged 0.19 µmol m^?2 h^?1 with a range of 0.01–0.61 µmol m^?2 h^?1. DFR exhibited less N₂O emission flux than that reported in a nearby eutrophic reservoir, but still acted as a moderate N₂O source compared with other reservoirs and lakes worldwide. Annual emissions from the water–air interface of DFR were estimated to be 0.32 × 10⁵ mol N–N₂O, while N₂O degassing from releasing water behind the dam during power generation was nearly five times greater. Hence, N₂O degassing behind the dam should be taken into account for estimation of N₂O emissions from artificial reservoirs, an omission that historically has probably resulted in underestimates. IPCC methodology should consider more specifically N₂O emission estimation in aquatic ecosystems, especially in reservoirs, the default EF5 model will lead to an overestimation.     

Analysis of factors controlling soil N2O emission by principal component and path analysis method

Nitrous oxide (N₂O) is a potent greenhouse gas. Mitigating N₂O emission is critical for combating global climate change and improving the ecological environment. Many studies have focused on factors affecting N₂O emission from agricultural soils, but rarely on the relationship among these factors. In the present study, continuous measurement on N₂O emission was conducted in a maize system in Griffith, Australia and the relationships between N₂O emission, soil properties and weather conditions were examined. Principal component analysis and path analysis were used to analyze these data in correlation coefficient and the direct and indirect effects to N₂O emission. Results indicated that (1) the major factors affecting N₂O emission were WFPS, mineralized nitrogen (Mineral N), daily mean temperature (T _mean) and CO₂ concentration. The factors of direct influence N₂O emission were following Mineral N, CO₂, WFPS, and T _mean. The indirect influence N₂O emission was following T _mean, WFPS, Mineral N, and CO₂ concentration. (2) The standard multiple regression describing the relationship between N₂O emission and its major factors were Y = ?37.162 + 0.5267 X ₁ + 0.4331 X ₂ + 0.3014 X ₃ + 0.2392 X ₄ (r = 0.924, p < 0.01, n = 151), where Y is N₂O emission, X ₁ is Mineral N, X ₂ is CO₂, X ₃ is WFPS and X ₄ is T _mean. (3) N₂O emission from agricultural soils can be monitored and mitigated through improved management practices such as irrigation, straw retention and fertilizer application.     

N/N and O/O stable isotope ratios of nitrous oxide produced during denitrification in temperate forest soils

Anaerobic incubations of upland and wetland temperate forest soils from the same watershed were conducted under different moisture and temperature conditions. Rates of nitrous oxide (N₂O) production by denitrification of nitrate () and the stable isotopic composition of the N₂O (δ¹⁵N, δ¹⁸O) were measured. In all soils, N₂O production increased with elevated temperature and soil moisture. At each temperature and moisture level, the rate of N₂O production in the wetland soil was greater than in the upland soil. The ¹⁵N isotope effect (ε) _{(product − substrate)} ranged from −20‰ to −29‰. These results are consistent with other published estimates of ¹⁵N fractionation from both single species culture experiments and soil incubation studies from different ecosystems.A series of incubations were conducted with ¹⁸O-enriched water (H₂O) to determine if significant oxygen exchange (O-exchange) occurred between H₂O and N₂O precursors during denitrification. The exchange of H₂O-O with nitrite () and/or nitric oxide (NO) oxygen has been documented in single organism culture studies but has not been demonstrated in soils prior to this study. The fraction of N₂O-O derived from H₂O-O was confined to a strikingly narrow range that differed between soil types. H₂O-O incorporation into N₂O produced from upland and wetland soils was 86% to 94% and 64% to 70%, respectively. Neither the temperature, soil moisture, nor the rate of N₂O production influenced the magnitude of O-exchange. With the exception of one treatment, the net ¹⁸O isotope effect (ε_net) _{(product-substrate)} ranged from +37‰ to +43‰.Most previous studies that have reported ¹⁸O isotope effects for denitrification of to N₂O have failed to account for the effect of oxygen exchange with H₂O. When high amounts of O-exchange occur after fractionation during reductive O-loss, the ¹⁸O-enrichment is effectively lost or diminished and δ¹⁸O-N₂O values will be largely dictated by δ¹⁸O-H₂O values and subsequent fractionation. The process and extent of O-exchange, combined with the magnitude of oxygen isotope fractionation at each reduction step, appear to be the dominant controls on the observed oxygen isotope effect. In these experiments, significant oxygen isotope fractionation was observed to occur after the majority of water O-exchange. Due to the importance of O-exchange, the net oxygen isotope effect for N₂O production in soils can only be determined using δ¹⁸O-H₂O addition experiments with δ¹⁸O-H₂O close to natural abundance.The results of this study support the continued use of δ¹⁵N-N₂O analysis to fingerprint N₂O produced from the denitrification of . The utilization of ¹⁸O/¹⁶O ratios of N₂O to study N₂O production pathways in soil environments is complicated by oxygen exchange with water, which is not usually quantified in field studies. The oxygen isotope fractionation observed in this study was confined to a narrow range, and there was a clear difference in water O-exchange between soil types regardless of temperature, soil moisture, and N₂O production rate. This suggests that ¹⁸O/¹⁶O ratios of N₂O may be useful in characterizing the actively denitrifying microbial community.     

太湖及其周围河流中N2O的空间分布与释放通量

本次研究选择中国东部一个生态和环境空间分异极大的浅水湖泊（太湖）以及周围河流,分别于2003年7月和9月两次采集湖水和河水样品,分析其中的N₂O浓度,并利用扩散模型公式估算水-气界面N₂O交换通量。结果显示N₂O饱和度的空间变化从70％不饱和到2708％过饱和变化范围很大。N₂O饱和度的空间分布,N₂O与CH₄、无机氮、TDS（总溶解固体物质）之间的相关性都表明：   太湖重度富营养区N₂O的产生极大地受到人为N输入的影响。然而,初步的通量分析显示湖泊N₂O的释放因子不超过0.63％,小于河流中的默认值,N₂O产率也略低于水环境中的平均值,太湖以面积为权重的释放通量平均值并不高,在7月和9月分别为14.0μmol/m²·d和9.7μmol/m²·d。这些结果表明流域人为N输入对整个湖泊N₂O的促进作用是有限的,预计未来湖泊N₂O释放不会因为人为活动增加而出现大幅度增加的状况。流域内各生态景观N₂O释放量的比较,也表明富营养湖泊总体上仍然是一个十分有限的大气N₂O释放源。相反,太湖周围河流存在较大的N₂O释放速率,在7月和9月估算的N₂O释放通量分别为142.1μmol/m²·d和28.8μmol/m²·d。将这一释放速率推广到整个流域后,预计河网的N₂O释放量将占到耕作土壤的10％～50％,显示了河流对区域N₂O质量平衡具有较重要的影响。     

The bioavailability of Al in soils to tea plants

In order to understand the relationship between forms of Al in soils and the uptake of Al from soil into tea plants, tea leaves and soils were collected from 13 tea gardens in the east of China. The Al concentration measured in the tea leaves was found to be best predicted by ‘available’ Al extracted by 0.02 M CaCl₂. The relationship appears to be linear, with a correlation coefficient of 0.77 (P=0.01). The Al content of tea leaves increases with a decrease of soil pH. This relationship is non-linear with a marked increase in leaf Al for soils with pH <5.0. The amounts of Al in soils extracted with 0.02 M CaCl₂ was much less than other forms of Al in soils. The amount of Al measured in the tea leaves was directly related to both the ‘available’ form of Al in the soils and soil pH. Soil pH was identified as a major factor that controls the uptake of Al from soil into the tea leaves.     

Effects of water table changes on soil CO2, CH4 and N2O fluxes during the growing season in freshwater marsh of Northeast China

A field control experiment was carried out to determine the influence of water table changes on soil CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O emissions in Calamagrostis angustifolia freshwater marsh in Northeast of China. The results showed that the water depth of 5 cm below the ground surface increased soil CO₂ emission, but there was no significant influence of deeper water table on gas emission. CH₄ emission was accelerated by deep standing water and approached the peak in the plant booming time. This suggests that root activity has influence on CH₄ production. The result also demonstrated that both low water table level and inundated environment would inhibit N₂O emission. Comparing the total global warming potential of three gases under different conditions, it can be concluded that maintaining a comparatively steady water table near the soil surface can benefit soil carbon sequestration in the C. angustifolia marsh, and decrease of the greenhouse gases emissions to the atmosphere.     

Effects of nitrogen on the ecosystem respiration,CH<Subscript>4</Subscript> and N<Subscript>2</Subscript>O emissions to the atmosphere from the freshwater marshes in northeast China

Freshwater marshes could be a source of greenhouse gases emission because they contain large amounts of soil carbon and nitrogen. These emissions are strongly influenced by exogenous nitrogen. We investigate the effects of exogenous nitrogen on ecosystem respiration (CO₂), CH₄ and N₂O emissions from freshwater marshes in situ in the Sanjiang Plain Northeast of China during the growing seasons of 2004 and 2005, using a field fertilizer experiment and the static opaque chamber/GC techniques. The results show that there were no significant differences in patterns of seasonal variations of CO₂ and CH₄ among the fertilizer and non-fertilizer treatments, but the seasonal patterns of N₂O emission were significantly influenced by the exogenous nitrogen. Seasonal averages of the CO₂ flux from non-fertilizer and fertilizer were 987.74 and 1,344.35 mg m ⁻² h ⁻¹, respectively, in 2004, and 898.59 and 2,154.17 mg m ⁻² h ⁻¹, respectively, in 2005. And the CH₄ from the control and fertilizer treatments were 6.05 and 13.56 mg m ⁻² h ⁻¹ and 0.72 and 1.88 mg m ⁻² h ⁻¹, respectively, in 2004 and 2005. The difference of N₂O flux between the fertilizer and non-fertilizer treatments is also significant either in 2004 and 2005. On the time scale of 20-, 100-, and 500-year periods, the integrated global warming potential (GWP) of CO₂ + CH₄ + N₂O released during the two growing seasons for the treatment of fertilizer was 97, 94 and 89%, respectively, higher than that for the control, which suggested that the nitrogen fertilizer can enhance the GWP of the CH₄ and N₂O either in long time or short time scale.     

Nitrous Oxide Emissions from Intertidal Zone of the Yellow River Estuary in Autumn and Winter During 2011–2012

Much uncertainty exists in spatial and temporal variations of nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions from coastal marshes in temperate regions. To investigate the spatial and temporal variations of N₂O fluxes and determine the environmental factors influencing N₂O fluxes across the coastal marsh dominated by Suaeda salsa in the Yellow River estuary, China, in situ measurements were conducted in high marsh (HM), middle marsh (MM), low marsh (LM), and mudflat (MF) in autumn and winter during 2011–2012. Results showed that mean N₂O fluxes and cumulative N₂O emission indicated intertidal zone of the examined marshes as N₂O sources over all sampling seasons with range of 0.0051 to 0.0152 mg N₂O m^?2 h^?1 and 7.58 to 22.02 mg N₂O m^?2, respectively. During all times of day and the seasons measured, N₂O fluxes from the intertidal zone ranged from ?0.0004 to 0.0644 mg N₂O m^?2 h^?1. The freeze/thaw cycles in sediments during early winter (frequent short-term cycle) and midwinter (long-term cycle) were one of main factors affecting the temporal variations of N₂O emission. The spatial variations of N₂O fluxes in autumn were mainly dependent on tidal fluctuation and plant composition. The ammonia-nitrogen (NH₄ ⁺–N) in sediments of MF significantly affected N₂O emissions (p < 0.05), and the high concentrations of Fe in sediments might affect the spatial variation of N₂O fluxes. This study highlighted the large spatial variation of N₂O fluxes across the coastal marsh (coefficient of variation (CV) = 127.86 %) and the temporal variation of N₂O fluxes during 2011–2012 (CV = 137.29 %). Presently, the exogenous C and N loadings of the Yellow River estuary are increasing due to human activities; thus, the potential effects of exogenous C and N loadings on N₂O emissions during early winter should be paid more attention as the N₂O inventory is assessed precisely.     

Nitric oxide emissions from soils: a case study with temperate soils from Saxony, Germany

Nitrogen oxides (NO _x ) are involved in acid rain and ozone formation, as well as destruction. NO _x are climate-relevant trace gases in the atmosphere. Atmospheric NO _x originate from anthropogenic emissions (mainly combustion processes). NO from natural processes derives from thunderstorms and soil microbial processes. They may play a crucial role in soil?Catmosphere feedback processes. This study aims to investigate NO _x -emissions from soils under different land use, geographical and meteorological conditions. NO _x -emissions were quantified in both field and laboratory experiments with a closed static chamber. Disturbed soil samples have been used for laboratory experiments. A climate chamber was used to regulate soil temperature of the samples. Field experiments showed that NO-soil emissions strongly depend on soil temperature. NO-emissions from a soil under meadow showed significant daily variations, unlike soil below spruce forest. Peak emission values were 18???g NO?CN?m^?2?h^?1 above meadow and 1.3???g NO?CN?m^?2?h^?1 under forest canopy. In addition, NO-emissions of meadow and forest soil were studied in a climate chamber, enhanced by an additional experiment with agricultural soil. These experiments revealed strong exponential correlations of NO-emissions and soil temperature. Maximum values reached above 400???g NO?CN?m^?2?h^?1 from agricultural soils at soil temperatures above 50°C. This study shows that soil NO-emissions strongly depend on temperature, vegetation type and geographical position. Consequently, NO-emissions may have a positive feedback effect on climate change.     

Laboratory investigation of factors affecting mercury emissions from soils

This study was performed to identify the individual and combined effects of the most important parameters that control mercury (Hg) emissions from soil surfaces: temperature, UV-B exposure, and soil water content. Both soil temperature and UV-B exposure positively affected Hg emissions; however, the increment in Hg emissions was significantly different between wet and dry soils. Mercury emissions from wet soil were more sensitive to an increase in soil temperature than dry soil; however, at constant temperature dry soil emissions were more sensitive than wet soil to changes in UV-B exposure. It was also observed that even after the relative humidity in the soil pores (RH_sp) dropped to nearly 0, the Hg emissions were still higher for initially wet soil than for dry soil, suggesting that initially high water content continued to promote Hg reduction mechanisms for an extended period. These results show the interacting effects of soil moisture with other important parameters. At constant water content, Hg emissions increased the most when the soil was exposed to UV-B radiation, followed by UV-A radiation. With UV-C exposure, atmospheric Hg deposition and O₃ destruction were simultaneously observed.     

Nitrogen isotopic studies in the suboxic Arabian Sea

Measurements of¹⁵N/¹⁴N in dissolved molecular nitrogen (N₂), nitrate (NO ₃ ⁻ ) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) and¹⁸O/¹⁶O in N₂O [expressed as δ¹⁵N and δ¹⁸O, relative to atmospheric N₂ and oxygen (O₂), respectively] have been made in water column at several locations in the Arabian Sea, a region with one of the thickest and most intense O₂ minima observed in the open ocean. Microbially-mediated reduction of NO ₃ ⁻ to N₂ (denitrification) in the oxygen minimum zone (OMZ) appears to greatly affect the natural isotopic abundances. The δ¹⁵N of NO ₃ ⁻ increases from 6‰ in deep waters (2500 m) to 15‰ within the core of the denitrifying layer (250–350 m); the δ¹⁵N of N₂ concurrently decreases from 0.6‰ to 0.20‰ Values of the isotopic fractionation factor (ε) during denitrification estimated using simple advection-reaction and diffusion-reaction models are 22‰ and 25‰, respectively. A strong decrease in δ¹⁵N of NO ₃ ⁻ is observed from ∼ 200m (> 11‰) to 80m (∼ 6‰); this is attributed to the input of isotopically light nitrogen through nitrogen fixation. Isotopic analysis of N₂O reveals extremely large enrichments of both¹⁵N and¹⁸O within the OMZ, presumably due to the preferential reduction of lighter N₂O to N₂. However, isotopically light N₂O is observed to accumulate in high concentrations above the OMZ indicating that the N₂O emitted to the atmosphere from this region cannot be very heavy. The isotope data from the intense upwelling zone off the southwest coast of India, where some of the highest concentrations of N₂O ever found at the sea surface are observed, show moderate depletion of¹⁵N, but slight enrichment of¹⁸O relative to air. These results suggest that the ocean-atmosphere exchange cannot counter inputs of heavier isotopes (particularly¹⁸O) associated with the stratospheric back flux, as proposed by previous workers. This calls for additional sources and/or sinks of N₂O in the atmosphere. Also, the N₂O isotope data cannot be explained by production through either nitrification or denitrification, suggesting a possible coupling between the two processes as an important mechanism of N₂O production.     

Denitrification and N2O production in near-shore marine sediments

Methods were developed for determining rates of denitrification in coastal marine sediments by measuring the production of N₂ from undisturbed cores incubated in gas-tight chambers. Denitrification rates at summer temperatures (23°C) in sediment cores from Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island, were about 50μmol N₂m^?2 hr^?1. This nitrogen flux is equal to approximately one-half of the NH⁺₄flux from the sediments at this temperature and is of the magnitude necessary to account for the anomalously low N/P and anomalously high O/N ratios often reported for benthic nutrient fluxes. The loss of fixed nitrogen as N₂ during the benthic remineralization of organic matter, coupled with the importance of benthic remineralization processes in shallow coastal waters may help to explain why the availability of fixed nitrogen is a major factor limiting primary production in these areas. Narragansett Bay sediments are also a source of N₂O, but the amount of nitrogen involved was only about 0.2 μmol m^?2 hr^?1 at 23°C.     

Nitrogen and Oxygen Isotope Balance in Tropospheric N2O—An Improved Budget

In steady state the stable isotopic composition of nitrogen and oxygen in tropospheric N2O is balanced by isotopically light N2O emitted from soils and oceans and isotopically heavy N2O as a return flux from the stratosphere.However,no such balance was reached in calculations given by Kim and Caig(1993).Modifications have been made on their calculations based on the most recent reports on annual global emission of N2O.It is considered that the nitrogen and oxygen isotope budget in tropospheric N2O are approximately in balance if isotopic fractionation effects during the production of N2O in soils and furthermore this paper puts forward further evidence for validating the above results.     

Biogeochemistry of nitrous oxide in groundwater in a forested ecosystem elucidated by nitrous oxide isotopomer measurements

The biological and physical controls on microbial processes that produce and consume N₂O in soils are highly complex. Isotopomer ratios of N₂O, with abundance of ¹⁴N¹⁵N¹⁶O, ¹⁵N¹⁴N¹⁶O, and ¹⁴N¹⁴N¹⁸O relative to ¹⁴N¹⁴N¹⁶O, are promising for elucidation of N₂O biogeochemistry in an intact ecosystem. Site preference, the nitrogen isotope ratio of the central nitrogen atom minus that of the terminal nitrogen atom, is useful to distinguish between N₂O via hydroxylamine oxidation and N₂O via nitrite reduction.We applied this isotopomer analysis to a groundwater system in a temperate coniferous-forested ecosystem. Results of a previous study at this location showed that the N₂O concentration in groundwater varied greatly according to groundwater chemistry, i.e. NO₃⁻, DOC, and DO, although apportionment of N₂O production to nitrification or denitrification was ambiguous. Our isotopic analysis (δ¹⁵N and δ¹⁸O) of NO₃⁻ and N₂O implies that denitrification is the dominant production process of N₂O, but definitive information is not derived from δ¹⁵N and δ¹⁸O analysis because of large variations in isotopic fractionations during production and consumption of N₂O. However, the N₂O site preference and the difference in δ¹⁵N between NO₃⁻ and N₂O indicate that nitrification contributes to total N₂O production and that most measured N₂O has been subjected to further N₂O reduction to N₂. The implications of N₂O biogeochemistry derived from isotope and isotopomer data differ entirely from those derived from conventional concentration data of DO, NO₃⁻, and N₂O. That difference underscores the need to reconsider our understanding of the N cycle in the oxic-anoxic interface.     

Greenhouse gas emissions from soils—A review

Soils act as sources and sinks for greenhouse gases (GHG) such as carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O). Since both storage and emission capacities may be large, precise quantifications are needed to obtain reliable global budgets that are necessary for land-use management (agriculture, forestry), global change and for climate research. This paper discusses exclusively the soil emission-related processes and their influencing parameters. It reviews soil emission studies involving the most important land-cover types and climate zones and introduces important measuring systems for soil emissions. It addresses current shortcomings and the obvious bias towards northern hemispheric data.When using a conservative average of 300 mg CO₂e m⁻² h⁻¹ (based on our literature review), this leads to global annual net soil emissions of ≥350 Pg CO₂e (CO₂e = CO₂ equivalents = total effect of all GHG normalized to CO₂). This corresponds to roughly 21% of the global soil C and N pools. For comparison, 33.4 Pg CO₂ are being emitted annually by fossil fuel combustion and the cement industry.     

Global Nitrogen Cycle: Pre-Anthropocene Mass and Isotope Fluxes and the Effects of Human Perturbations

We present a nitrogen cycle model for pre-industrial times based on an extensive literature database. The model consists of 18 reservoirs in the domains of the atmosphere, land, and ocean. The biotic reservoirs on land and in the ocean (N-fixing plants, non-N-fixing plants, and marine biota) interact with atmospheric N₂ and dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN, consisting of N₂, NO₃ ^?, and NH₄ ⁺) in the ocean and soil waters. Marine DIN is taken up by marine biota and transformed from ocean particulate organic matter to dissolved organic nitrogen and the ocean sediment. The atmosphere, the largest nitrogen reservoir, supplies N₂ to the system by N fixation, deposition, and dissolution, and these input fluxes are balanced by denitrification and volatilization back to the atmosphere. The land and ocean domains are linked by river transport, which carries both dissolved and particulate nitrogen to the oceanic coastal zone. The isotope–mass balances of the N reservoirs are calculated from the isotopic composition of the reservoirs and the fractionation factors accompanying the fluxes between the reservoirs based on reported values from different natural conditions. The model sensitivity was tested for different biouptake rates and was run with various human perturbations, including fertilization, nitrous oxide emissions, population-related sewage disposal, land-use changes, and temperature-dependent rate kinetics. The new N mass–isotope cycle model provides the basis for assessment of the impact of artificial fertilization between 1700 and 2050. The perturbation experiments in this study suggest that land-use change is the key factor altering the N mass cycle since industrialization.