Identification of tsunami deposits considering the tsunami waveform: An example of subaqueous tsunami deposits in Holocene shallow bay on southern Boso Peninsula, Central Japan

This study proposes a tsunami depositional model based on observations of emerged Holocene tsunami deposits in outcrops located in eastern Japan. The model is also applicable to the identification of other deposits, such as those laid down by storms. The tsunami deposits described were formed in a small bay of 10–20-m water depth, and are mainly composed of sand and gravel. They show various sedimentary structures, including hummocky cross-stratification (HCS) and inverse and normal grading. Although, individually, the sedimentary structures are similar to those commonly found in storm deposits, the combination of vertical stacking in the tsunami deposits makes a unique pattern. This vertical stacking of internal structures is due to the waveform of the source tsunamis, reflecting: 1) extremely long wavelengths and wave period, and 2) temporal changes of wave sizes from the beginning to end of the tsunamis.

The tsunami deposits display many sub-layers with scoured and graded structures. Each sub-layer, especially in sandy facies, is characterized by HCS and inverse and normal grading that are the result of deposition from prolonged high-energy sediment flows. The vertical stack of sub-layers shows incremental deposition from the repeated sediment flows. Mud drapes cover the sub-layers and indicate the existence of flow-velocity stagnant stages between each sediment flow. Current reversals within the sub-layers indicate the repeated occurrence of the up- and return-flows.

The tsunami deposits are vertically divided into four depositional units, Tna to Tnd in ascending order, reflecting the temporal change of wave sizes in the tsunami wave trains. Unit Tna is relatively fine-grained and indicative of small tsunami waves during the early stage of the tsunami. Unit Tnb is a protruding coarse-grained and thickest-stratified division and is the result of a relatively large wave group during the middle stage of the tsunami. Unit Tnc is a fine alternation of thin sand sheets and mud drapes, deposited from waning waves during the later stage of the tsunami. Unit Tnd is deposited during the final stage of the tsunami and is composed mainly of suspension fallout. Cyclic build up of these sub-layers and depositional units cannot be explained by storm waves with short wave periods of several to ten seconds common in small bays.     

Seismological monitoring on the 2003 Tokachi-oki earthquake, derived from off Kushiro permanent cabled OBSs and land-based observations

Japan Marine Science and Technology Center installed a cabled geophysical observatory system off Kushiro, Hokkaido Island in July 1999. This observatory system comprises three ocean bottom seismographs (OBSs), two tsunami gauges, and a geophysical/geochemical monitoring system. 4 years and 2 months after the installation, a megathrust earthquake (the 2003 Tokachi-Oki earthquake, 26th September in Japan Standard Time (JST), M_JMA 8.0) occurred along a plate boundary underneath a forearc basin where the system is located. The system recorded clear unsaturated seismograms just at 28.6 km from the epicenter. This paper demonstrates advantages brought by the cabled observatory to record the megathrust earthquake showing how earthquake detectability is improved dramatically combining permanent OBS and land-based observations around the region, and importance of the in situ monitoring on the seismogenic zone. In the present study, processing OBSs and land-based network together, and comparing magnitudes of common observed earthquakes with national authorized network, event detection level improved down to M 1.5, which is much lower than the previously designed as down to M  2. Comparing detection level before and after installing OBSs, we found dramatic improvement of the earthquake detection level in the interesting region. Real-time continuous observations of microearthquakes since 1999 have brought us tremendous findings. First, a seismic quiescence started about 10 days before the 2003 Tokachi-Oki earthquake. Second, aftershock distribution is not uniform over the focal area and can be divided into several sub-regions, which might indicate an existence of several asperities. We think that the geophysical observations helped to understand the initiation process of the rupture of the 2003 Tokachi-Oki earthquake and that observations including seismological, geodynamic, hydrogeological, and the other multidisciplinary observations would provide a clue to future understanding of seismogenic processes at subduction zones.     

High precision slip distribution of the 1944 Tonankai earthquake inferred from tsunami waveforms: Possible slip on a splay fault

Inversion of tsunami waveforms is a well-established technique for estimating the slip distributions of subduction zone earthquakes, with some of the most detailed results having been obtained for earthquakes in the Nankai Trough, SW Japan. The present study, although it uses a method and tsunami waveform data set almost identical to previous study, aims to improve on previous work by using a more precise specification of initial conditions for the calculation of tsunami Green's functions. Specifically, we incorporated four improvements in the present study: (1) we used a realistic plate model based only on seismic survey results, and assumed it to be the fault plane of the 1944 Tonankai earthquake; (2) the smallest subfaults consistent with the long wavelength approximation were used in the tsunami inversion analysis; (3) we included the effect of horizontal displacement of the ocean bottom on tsunami generation; and (4) we performed a checkerboard resolution test. As obtained in previous studies, a zone of high slip (> 2.0 m) was resolved off the Shima Peninsula. However, the more precise calculation of tsunami Green's functions has revealed additional detail that was not evident in previous studies, which we demonstrate is resolvable and correlates with the position of known faults in the accretionary prism. While there was little or no slip near the trench axis in the eastern part of the rupture zone, there was up to 1.5 m of slip resolved within 30 km of the trough axis in the western part, along the coast of the Kii Peninsula. This troughward slip zone coincides with the position of a large splay fault mapped in multichannel reflection surveys. Furthermore, it is also clear that the upper edge of the Enshu fault off Shima and Atsumi peninsulas is consistent with the up-dip limit of slip in the eastern part of our model. We tested the possibility that slip occurred on the former splay fault instead of on the plate interface during the 1944 Tonankai earthquake, and find that slip on this splay fault is also consistent with the data, although we cannot distinguish whether slip was dominant on the splay fault or on the plate interface. We further suggest that the position of the Enshu fault may be determined by the subduction of topographic highs, and that such faults may have an important influence on the up-dip rupture limit of the 1944 Tonankai and, potentially, other subduction zone earthquakes.     

The Gibraltar Arc seismogenic zone (part 2): Constraints on a shallow east dipping fault plane source for the 1755 Lisbon earthquake provided by tsunami modeling and seismic intensity

The Great Lisbon earthquake has the largest documented felt area of any shallow earthquake and an estimated magnitude of 8.5–9.0. The associated tsunami ravaged the coast of SW Portugal and the Gulf of Cadiz, with run-up heights reported to have reached 5–15 m. While several source regions offshore SW Portugal have been proposed (e.g.— Gorringe Bank, Marquis de Pombal fault), no single source appears to be able to account for the great seismic moment as well as all the historical tsunami amplitude and travel time observations. A shallow east dipping fault plane beneath the Gulf of Cadiz associated with active subduction beneath Gibraltar, represents a candidate source for the Lisbon earthquake of 1755.Here we consider the fault parameters implied by this hypothesis, with respect to total slip, seismic moment, and recurrence interval to test the viability of this source. The geometry of the seismogenic zone is obtained from deep crustal studies and can be represented by an east dipping fault plane with mean dimensions of 180 km (N–S) × 210 km (E–W). For 10 m of co-seismic slip an Mw 8.64 event results and for 20 m of slip an Mw 8.8 earthquake is generated. Thus, for convergence rates of about 1 cm/yr, an event of this magnitude could occur every 1000–2000 years. Available kinematic and sedimentological data are in general agreement with such a recurrence interval. Tsunami wave form modeling indicates a subduction source in the Gulf of Cadiz can partly satisfy the historical observations with respect to wave amplitudes and arrival times, though discrepancies remain for some stations. A macroseismic analysis is performed using site effect functions calculated from isoseismals observed during instrumentally recorded strong earthquakes in the region (M7.9 1969 and M6.8 1964). The resulting synthetic isoseismals for the 1755 event suggest a subduction source, possibly in combination with an additional source at the NW corner of the Gulf of Cadiz can satisfactorily explain the historically observed seismic intensities. Further studies are needed to sample the turbidites in the adjacent abyssal plains to better document the source region and more precisely calibrate the chronology of great earthquakes in this region.     

Imaging the heterogeneous source area of the 2003 M6.4 northern Miyagi earthquake, NE Japan, by double-difference tomography

A shallow M6.4 inland earthquake occurred on 26 July 2003 in the northern part of Miyagi Prefecture, northeastern Japan. This earthquake was a typical inland thrust earthquake, a type that is common in NE Japan. We obtained a detailed seismic velocity structure in the focal area of this earthquake by the double-difference tomography method. Arrival-time data came from temporary seismic stations deployed above the mainshock fault plane. Both the P-wave and S-wave velocities in the hanging wall were lower than those in the footwall. Aftershocks were aligned along a zone where the seismic velocity changes rapidly. This is consistent with the interpretation that the 2003 northern Miyagi earthquake occurred along a fault that acted as a normal fault in the Miocene and has been reactivated as a reverse fault under the present compressional stress regime. The large slip area by the main shock rupture (asperity) corresponds to an area with relatively high P- and S-wave velocities. A zone with low V_p/V_s was detected along the aftershock area. One of the possible causes of this low-V_p/V_s zone is the existence of high-aspect-ratio pores that contain water. Hypocenters of the main shock, largest foreshock, and largest aftershock are also located within the low-V_p/V_s zone.     

Late Pleistocene sea-level oscillations (MIS 10–2) recorded in shallow marine and coastal plain sediments of the southern Wanganui Basin, New Zealand

The northern Wanganui Basin, New Zealand, is one of the key global sites for understanding marine cyclic sedimentation during the Quaternary. This paper presents the first evidence of marine cyclic sedimentation from its central-southern parts. Sedimentological, micropalaeontological and palynological analyses on a 280-m-deep borehole encountered units dating back to MIS 10. The sequence includes four marine cycles spanning MIS 9–5, which are overlain by terrestrial fluvial aggradation surfaces dating from MIS 4–2. Each marine unit represents a progressively shallowing depositional environment from the mid-shelf to coastal plain. This is overlain by a terrestrial sequence of lowstand fluvial terraces. Localized fault movements appear to have influenced the sedimentary character of the sequence during MIS 7a and 5e producing basement highs which provided protection to the shoreline. The cyclothems described in this paper now extend the already extensive, previously described record from MIS 17–10 to produce a combined eustatic record of Quaternary sea level change within the basin to MIS 5. They also provide an excellent example of the sedimentary response of a coastal basin to a progressive loss of sedimentation accommodation space.     

Archaeal polar lipids in subseafloor sediments from the Nankai Trough: Implications for the distribution of methanogens in the deep marine subsurface

Although the methane in marine methane hydrates is mainly of microbial origin, information about the distribution of methanogens in subseafloor sediments is limited. To address this issue, we analyzed sediment core samples from two sites in the Nankai Trough, off the Pacific coast of central Japan, including those bearing methane hydrates from depths > 100 m below the seafloor (mbsf), for isopranyl ether-linked polar lipids (i.e. with polar head groups of phosphate, sugar, or both) as biomarkers of archaea, including methanogens. In most samples, including the deepest (381 mbsf), archaeol, and sn-2- and sn-3-hydroxyarchaeols were detected as their hydrolyzed derivatives. Concentrations of these three archaeal lipids correlated strongly with each other, suggesting a common biological source. The δ¹³C values of phytane derived from the phytanyl groups in the archaeal lipids were distinctly higher than those of methane, indicating that methanogens rather than anaerobic methanotrophic archaea were the major biological source. Depth profiles of polar sn-2-hydroxyarchaeol concentration were consistent with those of the potential methane production activity previously estimated from incubation of core sediments from the same sites. This observation, together with results of previous studies showing the presence of sn-2-hydroxyarchaeol mainly in shallow young sediments, strongly suggests that this polar lipid is a valid biomarker for in situ methanogens in sediments. There was a strong correlation between the concentration of polar sn-2-hydroxyarchaeol and that of total organic carbon, suggesting that bulk organic matter concentration is a primary control on the distribution of methanogens in sediments.     

Numerical modeling of hydrothermal fluid flow coupled with mass transport: An example from the Devonian Wabamun Group, northeast British Columbia, Canada

Several researchers have suggested that upward and lateral hydrothermal fluid flow was responsible for dolomitization of various Devonian and Mississippian reservoirs in the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin (WCSB) based on sedimentological, geochemical and diagenetic evidence. In this study, a numerical model was applied to investigate hydrothermal fluid flow in the Wabamun Group, Parkland field, northeastern British Columbia, Canada. Our numerical results indicate that faults play the most critical role in controlling hydrothermal fluid flow. They provide a pathway connecting the basement of the basin and overlying sedimentary layers. Upwelling fluid flow via faults may bring reactants and heat from underlying strata to shallow formations for diagenetic reactions (e.g. dolomitization and/or chertification) or forming ore deposits. Salinity distribution of formation water, permeability configuration of host rock and regional fluid flow are also important factors affecting hot and brine fluid flow and accompanying heat and mass distribution.     

The influence of the geological and geomorphological settings on shallow landslides. An example in a temperate climate environment: the June 19, 1996 event in northwestern Tuscany (Italy)

On June 19, 1996, an extremely heavy rainstorm hit a restricted area in the Apuan Alps (northwestern Tuscany, Italy). Its max intensity concentrated over an area of about 150 km² astride the Apuan chain, where 474 mm was recorded in about 12 h (21% of the mean annual precipitation, with an intensity up to 158 mm/h). The storm caused floods and hundreds of landslides and debris flows, which produced huge damage (hundreds of millions of Euros), partially destroyed villages and killed 14 people. This paper reports the results obtained from a detailed field survey and aerial view interpretation. In the most severely involved area, 647 main landslides were investigated, mapped and related to the geologic, geomorphic and vegetational factors of the source areas. This was in order to define the influence of these factors and contribute to an evaluation of the landslide hazard in the study area. An assessment was also made of the total area and volume of material mobilised by landsliding. The study area, about 46 km² wide, includes three typically mountainous basins, characterised by narrow, deep cut valleys and steep slopes, where many rock types outcrop. Most of the landslides were shallow and linear, referable to complex, earth and debris translational slide, which quickly developed into flow (soil slip–debris flow). Usually, they involved colluvium and started in hollows underlain by metamorphic rock (metasandstone and phyllite), often dipping downslope. Therefore, bedrock lithology and impermeability appeared to be important factors in the localisation of the landslide phenomena. The investigation of the geomorphic and land use features in the source areas also frequently highlighted a rectilinear profile of the slope, a high slope gradient (31–45°) and dense chestnut wood cover. In the area, about 985,000 m² (2.1% of 46 km²) was affected by landsliding and about 700,000 m² of this area was covered by chestnut forest. The landslides removed about 7000 trees. The volume of mobilised material was about 1,360,000 m³; about 220,000 m³ remained on the slopes, while the rest poured into the streams. In addition, about 945,000 m³ was mobilised by the torrential erosion in the riverbeds.     

Neoproterozoic glaciation in the mid-oceanic realm: An example from hemi-pelagic mudstones on Llanddwyn Island, Anglesey, UK

We report the first occurrence of ice-rafted dropstones in mid-oceanic sediments belonging to an ocean plate stratigraphy within a Neoproterozoic accretionary complex on Llanddwyn Island, Wales, UK. Dropstones of sandstone, chert, and basalt occur as matrix-supported exotic clasts in a 1 m-thick, hemi-pelagic mafic mudstone; the largest clast is 20 × 25 cm across. These dropstones occur specifically in hemi-pelagic mafic mudstone that is located at the structural top of ocean plate stratigraphy that records a ridge-trench transition; they are supplementary to dropstones associated with extensive tillites reported in shallow marine sequences of continental shelf facies and in back-arc basins.     

The effects of pre-existing normal faults on thrust ramp development: An example from the northern Apennines,Italy

The Umbria-Marche foreland fold-and-thrust belt in the northern Apennines of Italy provides excellent evidence to test the hypothesis of synsedimentary-structural control on thrust ramp development. This orogenic belt consists of platform and pelagic carbonates, Late Triassic to Miocene in age, whose deposition was controlled by significant synsedimentary extension. Normal faulting, mainly active from Jurassic through Late Cretaceous-Paleogene time, resulted in significant lateral thickness variability within the related stratigraphic sequences. By Late Miocene time the sedimentary cover was detached from the underlying basement and was deformed by east-verging folds and west-dipping thrusts. Two restored balanced cross sections through the southernmost part of the belt show a coincidence between the early synsedimentary normal faults and the late thrust fault ramps. These evidences suggest that synsedimentary tectonic structures, such as faults and the related lithological lateral changes, can be regarded as mechanically important controlling factors in the process of thrust ramp development during positive tectonic inversion processes.     

Hyperspectral logging of middle Cambrian marine sediments with hydrocarbon prospectivity: a case study from the southern Georgina Basin,northern Australia

The Georgina Basin is a Neoproterozoic–Paleozoic basin that spans parts of the Northern Territory and Queensland in northern Australia. The basin is prospective for petroleum, phosphate and base metals (copper, lead and zinc). The Dulcie and Toko synclines in the southern part of the basin are prospective for petroleum, where a thick Cambro-Ordovician succession of marine carbonates hosts several source rocks and associated oil and gas shows. The key source rock units occur within the middle Cambrian Narpa Group, including both the Thorntonia Limestone (Series 2 and 3) and the Arthur Creek Formation (Series 3). The base of the Arthur Creek Formation is characterised by organic-rich ‘hot’ shales (associated with a prominent gamma spike in well logs) that have been targeted by petroleum explorers for both conventional and unconventional oil and gas. For this study, hyperspectral logging data collected by HyLogger? instruments were evaluated from 13 wells in the southern Georgina Basin, including petroleum, mineral and stratigraphic wells. Formation boundaries are commonly (but not always) characterised by distinctive changes in mineralogy, as determined by spectral and X-ray diffraction data. Key source rock units in the southern Georgina Basin were characterised and mapped in terms of their mineralogy, and other spectral properties (e.g. Short-Wave Infrared (SWIR) reflectance and spectral contrast). Interpretation of the hyperspectral data alongside wireline log data supports the differentiation of two successions within the Arthur Creek Formation that are each characterised by basal organic-rich shales, previously distinguished on the basis of biostratigraphic and well-log data. The older succession in the Dulcie Syncline is spectrally characterised as being quartz and carbonate dominated. The younger succession, distributed across the eastern part of the Dulcie Syncline and fully across the Toko Syncline, is spectrally characterised as quartz and carbonate dominated, with variable white-mica contributions. Key associations are observed between the HyLogger mineralogy and geophysical-log data. Peaks in the gamma log intensity in the middle Cambrian sediments commonly correspond to elevated measured total organic carbon contents, decreased carbonate contribution, SWIR reflectance and spectral contrast, and relatively increased proportions of white micas and quartz. This study demonstrates that HyLogging data can provide an improved understanding of the sedimentological, mineralogical and diagenetic characteristics, as well as associated spatial heterogeneity, of prospective hydrocarbon formations in sedimentary basins.     

海平面升降对海相临滨储层宏观非均质性控制机理—以哈得逊东河砂岩储层为例

本文研究海平面变化对海相单一亚相储层宏观非均质性的影响。以经典层序地层学理论为指导,应用岩心测试、测井数据,对哈得油田东河砂岩段临滨亚相储层宏观非均质性进行了分析,提出了海平面升降对临滨亚相储层宏观非均质性控制机理,确定了海平面相对变化控制的储层宏观非均质性分布模式。结果表明,准层序、准层序组及体系域内不同级次的海平面变化,对沉积物形成的水动力条件及沉积后所处表生环境产生较大影响,各项储层宏观非均质参数表现出明显的规律性,使准层序内单一临滨亚相储层宏观非均质性表现为向上减弱的变化趋势;准层序组内由于准层序堆砌特征差异,使退积式准层序组内临滨亚相储层宏观非均质性呈向上变强的特征,而进积式准层序组内表现为由强到弱的趋势;高位体系域内单一临滨亚相储层宏观非均质性总体表现为向上逐渐减弱。     

多种方法评价断层封闭性——以金湖凹陷石港断裂带为例

运用断层活动强度、现今应力作用方向与断层封闭效应及模糊综合评判方法,对金湖凹陷石港断裂带地区的断层封闭性进行了评价。研究表明,石港主控断层在不同位置的封闭性存在很大的差异,具有"南开北闭"特征,表现为断层在南部开启,在北部闭合,从而有效地封闭了油气。北部的次级派生断层封闭性较好,在局部形成断层遮挡油气藏。通过模糊综合评判法评价断层封闭性,认识到不同时期各断层封闭成藏情况不同:阜宁组断层封闭性好于戴南组;阜四段主要为泥岩,封闭性最好;阜二段和戴一段封闭性较好。分析结果与实际勘探状况相吻合。     

Long-term seismotectonic influence on the hydrochemical composition of a spring located at Koryaksky-Volcano, Kamchatka: deduced from aggregated earthquake information

The analysis of earthquake-related signals in hydrochemical time series is still a challenging task. Mostly it is unclear how the geometrical and energetic distribution of earthquakes is influencing variation in the hydrochemical composition of monitoring sites, e.g. located close to volcanoes. Past research showed that linear stress-release models alone are not capable to explain sufficiently observed variation in hydrochemical time series due to earthquake activity. A spring located at the base of Koryaksky Volcano, which has shown hydrochemical variation close to 5, major earthquakes, was chosen to analyse relation patterns between hydrochemical variation and seismicity. A possible mechanism, explaining observed hydrochemical variation, that seismic waves trigger an underground water pumping caused by nucleation of gas bubbles in magma was proposed. Consequences are an increase of discharge, gas content in water and changes in the mixing ratios of waters of different genesis. Based on functions of aggregated earthquake information (E) it is herein shown that seismotectonic-triggered processes have a significant influence on the variation of the hydrochemistry of the spring, lasting longer than two decades. At least seven categories of relation patterns between hydrochemical variation and seismotectonic activity E can be identified. A conducted spectral analysis shows that earthquake activity and hydrochemistry share spikes in frequencies. Results prove that the use of functions of transformed aggregated seismic observations is useful to represent the seismotectonic activity for analysing earthquake-related signals in hydrochemical time series.     

Normal faulting as a control on the stratigraphic development of shallow marine syn-rift sequences: the Nukhul and Lower Rudeis Formations, Hammam Faraun fault block, Suez Rift, Egypt

Tectono-stratigraphic analysis of the East Tanka fault zone (ETFZ), Suez Rift, indicates that the evolution of normal fault segments was an important control on syn-rift depositional patterns and sequence stratigraphy. Sedimentological and stratigraphic analysis of the Nukhul Formation indicates that it was deposited in a narrow (ca 1–2 km), elongate (ca 5 km), fault-bounded, tidally influenced embayment during the low subsidence rift-initiation phase. The Nukhul Formation is composed of transgressive (TST) and highstand (HST) systems tract couplets interpreted as reflecting fault-driven subsidence and the continuous creation of accommodation in the hangingwall to the ETFZ. The overlying Lower Rudeis Formation was deposited during the high subsidence rift-climax phase, and is composed of forced regressive systems tract (FRST) shallow marine sandbodies, and TST to HST offshore mudstones. Activity on the ETFZ led to marked spatial variability in stratal stacking patterns, systems tracts and key stratal surfaces, as footwall uplift, coupled with regressive marine erosion during deposition of FRST sandbodies, led to the removal of intervening TST–HST mudstone-dominated units, and the amalgamation of FRST sandbodies and the stratal surfaces bounding these units in the footwall. This study indicates that the evolution of normal fault segments over relatively short (i.e. <1 km) length-scales has the potential to enhance or suppress a eustatic sea-level signal, leading to marked spatial variations in stratal stacking patterns, systems tracts and key stratal surfaces. Crucially, these variations in sequence stratigraphic evolution may occur within time-equivalent stratal units, thus caution must be exercised when attempting to correlate syn-rift depositional units based solely on stratal stacking patterns. Furthermore, local, tectonically controlled variations in relative sea level can give rise to syn-rift stacking patterns which are counterintuitive in the context of the structural setting and perceived regional subsidence rates.     

Geochemical constraints on marine invasion and provenance change related to the opening of the Japan Sea: an example from the Lower Miocene shales in the Hoda section,Shimane Peninsula,SW Japan

Geochemical changes related to the opening of the Japan Sea are described in the Miocene shale sequence across the boundary of the nonmarine Koura and the marine Josoji formations in southwest Japan. Typical shales of the Koura Formation were derived from source material of acid to intermediate compositions. The Josoji Formation consists of black shales and is more homogeneous in composition than the Koura Formation, with gradual change from intermediate to basic source rock compositions. CIA values [chemical index of alteration; ratio of (Al to Al+Ca+Na+K)×100] for the upper Koura and Josoji formations show higher values (70–80) than those of the underlying lower and middle Koura Formation (40–60). This indicates that highly weathered detritus was supplied to the basin after transgression of the Japan Sea. Both Koura and Josoji shales are depleted in Nb compared with the average composition of cratonic shales, suggesting a volcanic arc signature. Total organic carbon and nitrogen contents increase gradually upward in the two formations, while total sulfur contents show oscillatory change. This relationship suggests a signal of fluctuating sea water invasion into the sedimentary basin during the deposition of the upper units of the Koura Formation (probably between 20–23 Ma) and a regression dominated by fluvial conditions for the lower Josoji Formation.     

Multistage deformation of linked fault systems in extensional regions: An example from the northern Perth Basin,Western Australia

Linked fault systems identified in the northern portion of the onshore Perth basin comprise north‐striking normal faults, the dominant structures in the basin, and hard linkages—east‐striking transfer faults. The former are either divided into segments of distinctive character by, or terminate at, the transfer faults. The fault systems were initiated by west‐southwest‐east‐northeast extension in the Early Permian but were reactivated by subsequent rifting with approximately east‐west extension in the Jurassic. They were also reactivated by the oblique extension of northwest‐southeast orientation associated with Gondwana continental breakup in the Late Jurassic ‐ earliest Cretaceous. In addition to reactivation, older structures of the linked fault families controlled the development of younger fractures and folds. During the oblique extension, the linked fault systems define releasing bends, characterised by a rollover anticline in the hangingwall of the Mountain Bridge Fault, and restraining bends where contractional folds are sites of major commercial hydrocarbon fields in the basin.     

湖泊沉积物C4植物含量重建方法的讨论——以新生代柴达木盆地大红沟剖面为例

当前气候变暖是一个全球面临的重大问题,它对人类赖以生存的植被生态系统造成的影响已经在全球各地逐步显现出来。为了深入了解植物生态系统对环境和气候变化的响应机制,我们需要更好地借鉴地质历史时期气候环境和植物协同演化的重要事件。C₄植物作为陆地生产力较强的植物,在植物生态演化中占举足轻重的地位。目前研究表明C₄植物可能最晚起源于始新世-渐新世之交,但从它早期起源到随后在生态系统中的大规模扩张时间间隔长达20多个百万年。是什么因素导致了C₄植物的起源和扩张是一个悬而未决的重要问题,需要开展大量的调查研究来评估和重建C₄植物在过去生态系统中的相对生物量变化。重建C₄植物的含量目前主要的方法是建立在C₃/C₄植物碳同位素和植物内部结构形态差异基础之上。最常运用的研究材料包括(古)土壤有机质、成壤碳酸盐、陆地食草动物体组织、沉积物生物标志物、孢粉、植硅体等。这些方法在重建现代以及地质历史时期C₄植物相对生物量变化的研究中发挥了重要作用,但同时也存在很多无法避免的问题。本文介绍了C₄植物起源和扩张机制的主流观点以及不同研究材料的碳同位素所推算C₄植物生物量的基本原理,并以柴达木盆地大红沟剖面为例,针对新生代湖泊沉积物中陆生高等植物的长链正构烷烃特征和单体烃碳同位素的研究结果,详细讨论C₄植物含量重建的方法与缺点,为探讨C₄植物起源、演化及控制因素提供参考。我们通过分析前人研究的大红沟剖面长链正构烷烃及单体烃 δ¹³C_alk 值特征,推测在30~24 Ma、20~17 Ma和13~7 Ma期间δ¹³C_alk值显示相对正偏的原因,可能是干旱和C₄植物在当地生态系统中出现的双重因素叠加造成的。但这一推断还需要借助于新的研究方法,即单颗粒孢粉碳同位素的方法来提供C₄植物的确凿证据。     

基于古地貌和源-汇特征分析的烃源岩评价:以珠江口盆地阳江凹陷为例

近海盆地烃源岩评价是海上油气勘探成败的关键,也是亟待解决的关键科学问题。珠江口盆地阳江凹陷近期实现了油气勘探的重大突破,并展示了该区广阔的勘探前景。但在海上探井井位不足的情况下,仅靠地震资料难以客观地评价烃源岩的生烃潜力。为了进一步明确该区主要生烃层文昌组的生烃潜力,本文首先利用最新的四维层序地层模拟(Bandlands软件)技术,恢复了阳江凹陷古近系沉积期间的古地貌。古地貌恢复预测的古环境特征较好地揭示了文昌组古地貌与沉积体系的对应关系,说明文昌组古地貌背景对烃源岩沉积发育的影响较大。结合沉积体系的研究结果,分析总结了该区文昌组沉积时的源-汇特征,表明该凹陷文昌组早期是烃源岩发育的最有利时期。再结合洼陷古地貌特征、烃源岩的发育程度(主要依据半深湖相的厚度和面积)、与油源断裂的沟通及浅部圈闭的匹配等将各洼陷烃源岩综合划分为优质烃源岩、较好烃源岩和一般烃源岩3个级别:恩平20洼、恩平21洼为优质烃源岩;恩平27洼为较好烃源岩;恩平19洼、阳江24洼等为一般烃源岩。在对烃源岩分布预测的基础上,根据已钻井烃源岩样品的分析化验资料,将实验分析、地质分析与模拟结果相结合,分别对文昌组上段和文昌组下段两套烃源岩的沉积埋藏史、热演化史及生烃史进行综合分析。最后利用Petromod盆地模拟技术模拟了文昌组烃源岩的生烃潜力。模拟结果表明:恩平20、21洼和恩平27洼文昌组下段烃源岩生烃强度大于文昌组上段烃源岩生烃强度,说明文昌组下段烃源岩为生烃潜力最好的层段,且凹陷中东部的恩平20、21洼和南部的恩平27洼为生烃潜力最好的洼陷,具有较好的勘探潜力。这种基于古地貌和源-汇特征分析的烃源岩评价,对近海油气勘探具有重要的指导作用。