Morphological response to river engineering and management in alluvial channels in Italy

In response to various types of human disturbance, most Italian rivers have experienced considerable channel adjustment during the last centuries and in particular in the last decades. This paper reviews all existing published studies and available data, and aims to reconstruct a general outline of the main channel adjustments that have occurred in Italian rivers during the past 100 years.Two main types of channel adjustment have been recognized: (a) incision, which is commonly on the order of 3–4 m, but in some cases is even more than 10 m; (b) narrowing, with channel width reduction up to 50% or more. In some reaches, these adjustments have led to changes in channel pattern in particular from braided to wandering.Such channel adjustments are due to several types of human intervention, particularly sediment extraction, dams and channelization. A strong temporal relationship (specifically, short reaction times) between human disturbance and channel adjustment can be inferred, but trends of adjustment are available for only a few rivers (e.g. the Po, the Arno and the Piave Rivers). These trends show that incision and/or narrowing are more intense immediately after the disturbance and then slow and become asymptotic; the same trends also suggest that larger rivers could have longer relaxation times.The results of this study are synthesised in a general classification scheme that summarises the main styles of adjustment observed in Italian rivers. According to the scheme, braided rivers adjust through prevalent narrowing with varying rates of incision, whereas single-thread rivers adjust mainly through a more pronounced incision accompanied by various amounts of narrowing. The scheme, representing initial and final (present) morphologies and not including intermediate stages of channel adjustment, will need to be tested on the basis of more detailed data to have a wider application both to the Italian context and to fluvial systems elsewhere, affected by similar types of human disturbance causing a reduction of sediment supply.     

黄河内蒙古头道拐断面河道变化及其对上游水库的响应(英文)

The application of dams built upstream will change the input conditions,including water and sediment,of downstream fluvial system,and destroy previous dynamic quasi-equilibrium reached by channel streamflow,so indispensable adjustments are necessary for downstream channel to adapt to the new water and sediment supply,leading the fluvial system to restore its previous equilibrium or reach a new equilibrium.Using about 50-year-long hydrological,sedimentary and cross-sectional data,temporal response processes ...     

Downstream trends in sediment size and composition of channel-bed, bar, and bank deposits related to hydrologic and lithologic controls in the Llano River watershed, central Texas, USA

The downstream fining of fluvial sediments is a fundamental tenet of drainage systems and, for decades, has been the subject of considerable research. Most of this research has focused on variability in channel-bed material. Other sedimentological components such as channel bars and banks, however, represent distinctively different processes occurring at various flow magnitudes and durations and thus provide an opportunity to examine a more comprehensive set of controls on the larger fluvial system. This study analyses downstream patterns of sediment size and composition for channel-bed material, bars, and banks in the Llano River watershed (11,568 km²) in central Texas, USA.Fluvial deposits in the study area were characterized through field, laboratory, and statistical analyses and standard sedimentary indices (d₁₆, d₅₀, d₈₄, sorting) were computed. Two hundred thirty-eight sediment samples were collected at 15 sites along the main-stem channel with sampling occurring at the low-flow channel (thalweg), lateral bars, banks, and overbank locations. Channel-bar deposits are characterized by a downstream reduction in particle size, but low-flow-channel deposits have a substantially weaker trend, a discrepancy possibly attributed to uniformity and continuity of hydraulic sorting mechanisms during moderate and high flows. Channel-bar deposits reveal an abrupt downstream reduction in gravel size in the upper watershed, which is attributed to an increase in drainage area. Further, an abrupt gravel-to-sand transition occurs immediately downstream of a distinct lithologic change from mostly carbonate rocks to igneous and metamorphic rocks. The downstream decrease in channel-bar particle size occurs despite an increasingly constricted alluvial valley, commonly associated with greater unit stream power and relatively coarse sediment. Contrasting with channel-bed material, particle size of channel banks increases downstream, which is attributed to the addition of sand-sized sediment from igneous and metamorphic rocks. The consideration of distinctive sedimentological components of a dynamic fluvial system represents a more comprehensive and nuanced study of the topic of downstream sediment trends than prior studies, which is important to a range of engineering, biological, and planning issues at the watershed scale.     

A potential mechanism for disturbance-mediated channel migration in a southeastern United States salt marsh

Coastal salt marsh tidal creeks are thought to show less channel adjustment/movement relative to their terrestrial fluvial counterparts. We propose a mechanism for disturbance-mediated bank failure that may allow/initiate channel migration in these otherwise stable systems. The stability of tidal creeks is promoted by the extensive vegetation root structure along the banks. However, wrack mats (i.e., dead vegetation) deposited on creek banks can cause the death of below-ground vegetation leading to bare, unstable banks that may slump into the channel. We measured the frequency of bank failures associated with wrack-disturbed sites along three creeks on Sapelo Island, Georgia, USA to determine whether these sites were vulnerable to erosion. Approximately 81% of the disturbed sites showed signs of bank failure. Therefore, wrack-induced bank failure may potentially lead to channel migration in creeks previously believed to be static landscape features.     

Multiple thread flow and channel bifurcation in a braided river: Brahmaputra–Jamuna River, Bangladesh

Considerable progress has been made recently in characterising the patterns displayed by the anabranches of braided rivers. However, the physical processes of sediment scour, transfer and deposition that govern the generation and evolution of anabranch channels remain largely unexplained. Direct measurement of three-dimensional flow fields and morphological evolution of the anabranches in the braided Brahmaputra–Jamuna River, Bangladesh, were undertaken to investigate the interactions between fluvial processes and anabranch morphology. These data were used to elucidate the circumstances leading to the bifurcation of a single channel, which is a topic of fundamental importance to understanding the physical processes responsible for braiding. Results indicate that division of the velocity field into multiple threads within a single channel precedes a division in the cross-sectional morphology of the channel and appears to be a necessary prerequisite for development of a bifurcation. An empirical relationship was established to discriminate between channels with single and multi-thread velocity fields, based on the depth-to-width ratio and specific energy of the flow at a representative channel cross-section. This function requires further validation, but could be used to predict the conditions under which a single channel is likely to bifurcate to produce two anabranches.     

Double-thresholds in scour–fill processes and some implications in channel adjustment

Through an analysis of data collected from the Yellow River and its tributaries on the Loess Plateau of China, the phenomenon of double-thresholds in scour–fill processes of wide-range water-sediment two-phase flows has been shown. Thresholds located in non-hyperconcentrated flows may be called the lower threshold, and that in hyperconcentrated flows the upper threshold. This double-threshold phenomenon leads to complicated sediment transport behavior of heavily sediment-laden rivers. With an increase in suspended sediment concentration, the channel sediment delivery ratio increases initially and becomes higher than 1, followed by a decrease and finally becomes lower than 1 again.Controlled by the double-thresholds in the scour–fill processes, channel adjustment of the lower Yellow River is non-linear and complex. When the suspended concentrations were lower than the lower threshold or higher than the upper threshold, scour or bed downcutting was the dominant channel-forming process. Channel shape tends to be narrower and deeper, and the channel thalweg became more sinuous. When the suspended concentrations lay between the lower and upper thresholds, deposition of sediment was the dominant channel-forming process; channel shape tended to be shallower and wider, and channel thalweg became less sinuous.     

The evidence for paraglacial sedimentation and its temporal scale in the deglacierizing basin of Small River Glacier, Canada

Spatially sampled suspended sediment data from extra-channel surfaces of different ages during rainfall events were used to infer the timescale of landscape adjustment to Little Ice Age (LIA) deglacierization at Small River Glacier, Canada. Surface ages were determined by aerial photograph interpretation. Turbidimeters were installed in three ephemeral channels on “young,” “mature” and “old” surfaces; and their response to rainfall events of different magnitudes recorded. Results showed “young” ice proximal surfaces exposed since 1977 were increasingly vulnerable to mobilization during rainfall events. A suspended sediment response from “old” surfaces exposed since 1910 was recorded for only three events with 5- and 30-year return periods. The intensity and duration of rainfall events therefore had to increase in magnitude to mobilize sediment on surfaces of increasing maturity. Hysteresis in the channel suspended sediment response further confirmed the dependence of surface response on rainfall event magnitude. The rapid temporal decline in surface response indicated that surface armoring or sediment exhaustion is stabilizing surfaces within decades of exposure from the LIA maximum (ca. 1910) at Small River Glacier. However, further perturbation, for example by glacial advance or extreme climatic events, would likely modify the pattern of suspended sediment yields by changing terrain surface mobilization thresholds and reconfiguring channel sediment stores. We therefore suggest that it is difficult to determine when “paraglacial sedimentation” ceases to influence suspended sediment yields, and therefore significantly limiting the usefulness of the term to describe the period of suspended sediment yield adjustment following deglacierization.     

Response and recovery of the Eel River, California, and its tributaries to floods in 1955, 1964, and 1997

Northwestern California is prone to regional, high magnitude winter rainstorms, which repeatedly produce catastrophic floods in the basins of the northern Coast Ranges. Major floods on the Eel River in 1955 and 1964 resulted in substantial geomorphic changes to the channel, adjacent terraces, and tributaries. This study evaluated the changes and the effects of a moderate flood in 1997 through field observations and examination of aerial photographs that spanned from 1954 to 1996. The purpose was to document the nature and magnitude of geomorphic responses to these three floods and assess the rates and controls on the recovery of the Eel River and its tributaries. Channel widening from extensive bank erosion was the dominant geomorphic change along the lower Eel River during major floods. As a result of the 1964 flood, the largest amount of widening was 195 m and represented an 80% change in channel width. Channel narrowing characterized the periods after the 1955 and 1964 floods. More than 30 years after the 1964 flood, however, the river had not returned to pre-flood width, which suggests that channel recovery required decades to complete. A long recovery time is unusual given that the Eel River is located in an area with a “superhumid” climate and has an exceptionally high sediment yield. This long recovery time may reflect highly seasonal precipitation and runoff, which are concentrated in 3–5 months each winter. In contrast to the main stem of the Eel River, the dominant effects of floods on the tributaries of the Eel River were rapid aggradation of channel bed and valley floor followed by immediate downcutting. Dendrogeomorphic data, aerial photographs, and field observations indicate that thick wedges of gravel, derived largely from hillslope failures in upper reaches of the tributaries, are deposited at and immediately upstream of the mouths of tributaries as the stage of the Eel River exceeded that of the tributaries during major floods. In the waning stages of the flood, the tributaries cut through the gravel at a rate equal to the lowering of the Eel and generated unpaired terraces and nickpoints. The complete process of deposition and incision can occur within a few days of peak discharge. Although reworking of some sediment on the valley floor may continue for years after large floods, channel morphology in the tributaries appears to be a product of infrequent, high magnitude events. The morphology of the tributary channel also appears to be greatly influenced by the frequency and magnitude of mass wasting in headwater areas of small basins.     

Simulating the development of Martian highland landscapes through the interaction of impact cratering, fluvial erosion, and variable hydrologic forcing

On the highlands of Mars early in the history of the planet precipitation-driven fluvial erosion competed with ongoing impact cratering. This disruption, and the multiple enclosed basins produced by impacts, is partially responsible for a long debate concerning the processes and effectiveness of fluvial erosion. The role of fluvial erosion in sculpting the early Martian landscape is explored here using a simulation model that incorporates formation of impact craters, erosion by fluvial and slope processes, deposition in basins, and flow routing through depressions. Under assumed arid hydrologic conditions, enclosed basins created by cratering do not overflow, drainage networks are short, and fluvial bajadas infill crater basins with sediment supplied from erosion of interior crater slopes and, occasionally from adjacent steep slopes. Even under arid conditions adjacent crater basins can become integrated into larger basins through lateral erosion of crater rims or by rim burial by sediment infilling. Fluvial erosion on early Mars was sufficient to infill craters of 10 km or more in diameter with 500–1500 m of sediment. When the amount of runoff relative to evaporation is assumed to be larger, enclosed basins overflow and deeply incised valleys interconnect basins. Examples of such overflow and interconnection on the Martian highlands suggest an active hydrological cycle on early Mars, at least episodically. When fluvial erosion and cratering occur together, the drainage network is often disrupted and fragmented, but it reintegrates quickly from smaller impacts. Even when rates of impact are high, a subtle fluvial signature is retained on the landscape as broad, smooth intercrater plains that feature craters with variable amounts of infilling and rim erosion, including nearly buried “ghost” craters. The widespread occurrence of such intercrater plains on Mars suggests a strong fluvial imprint on the landscape despite the absence of deep, integrated valley networks. Indisputable deltas and alluvial fans are rare in the crater basins on Mars, in part because of subsequent destruction of surficial fluvial features by impact gardening and eolian processes. Simulations, however, suggest that temporally-varying lake levels and a high percentage of suspended to bedload supplied to the basins could also result in poor definition of fan–delta complexes.     

Spatiotemporal variability in channel deformations on rivers of Russia

We assess the spatiotemporal changes in channel processes on rivers of Russia, determine the causes for vertical (incision or directional sediment accumulation) and horizontal (displacement of channel forms) deformations and show the distribution of stream channel of different morphodynamical types and with a different reconfiguration rate. The conditions are revealed, under which the channel types change over time. Particular emphasis is placed on the analysis of spatiotemporal changes in channels caused by anthropogenic disturbances and by direct technogenic interferences in the life of rivers (hydroelectric schemes, quarries in the river channels, and waterway dredging).     

Systematic variation of bedrock channel gradients in the central Oregon Coast Range: implications for rock uplift and shallow landsliding

In tectonically active regions, bedrock channels play a critical role in dictating the pace of landscape evolution. Models of fluvial incision into bedrock provide a means of investigating relationships between gradients of bedrock channels and patterns of active deformation. Variations in lithology, orographic precipitation, sediment supply, and erosional processes serve to complicate tectonic inferences derived from morphologic data, yet most tectonically active landscapes are characterized by these complexities. In contrast, the central Oregon Coast Range (OCR), which is situated above the Cascadia subduction zone, has experienced rock uplift for several million years, did not experience Pleistocene glaciation, boasts a relatively uniform lithology, and exhibits minor variations in precipitation. Although numerous process-based geomorphic studies suggest that rates of erosion across the OCR are relatively constant, it has not been demonstrated that bedrock channel gradients in the region exhibit spatially consistent values. Analysis of broadly distributed, small drainage basins (5–20 km) in the central OCR enables us to explore regional variability in bedrock channel gradients resulting from differential rock uplift or other sources. Consistent with previous studies that have documented local structural control of deformed fluvial terraces in the western portion of our study area, our data reveal a roughly 20-km-wide band of systematically elevated channel slopes (roughly twice the background value), roughly coincident with the strike of N–S-trending mapped folds. Although many factors could feasibly generate this pattern, including variable rock strength, precipitation gradients, or temporal or spatial variations in forearc deformation, the elevated bedrock channel slopes likely reflect differential rock uplift related to activity of local structures. Importantly, our analysis suggests that rock uplift and erosion rates may vary systematically across the OCR. Although our calculations were focused on the fluvial-dominated portion of study basins, our results have implications for upstream areas, including unchanneled valleys that often serve as source areas for long-runout debris flows. Zero-order basins (or topographic hollows) within the N–S-trending band of elevated channel slopes tend to be steeper than adjacent areas and may experience more frequent evacuation by shallow landsliding. Thus, this region of the OCR may be highly sensitive to land use practices and high-intensity rainstorms.     

Long-term morphodynamic evolution and the equilibrium mechanism of a flood channel in the Yangtze Estuary (China)

The stability of flood channels has attracted considerable attention because of their complicated interactions with the prevailing hydrodynamics and importance in ship navigation. This research examines long-term morphodynamic evolution in the Yangtze Estuary from 1861 to 2002 and the equilibrium mechanism of the Xinqiao Channel in the Yangtze Estuary by digitizing 15 selected maritime charts and calculating the volume of the channel. Although the total period of channel development is much longer than the historical data used in this paper, three stages are identified during the study period: the first embryonic stage (66 years), the second formation stage (33 years) and the third equilibrium stage (45 years). Variations in coastline location, channel volume, and hydrodynamics in the channel during the three stages indicate that the channel equilibrium was reached and maintained when the channel direction was aligned with the direction of offshore tidal wave propagation. Variations in river and sediment discharges affect erosion and deposition in the channel and thus channel geometry. However, future reduction in sediment supply by 10–33% due to the ongoing river engineering projects would increase the volume of the Xinqiao Channel only by 1–3%. It seems unlikely that the above change in sediment discharge will disrupt the equilibrium of the Xinqiao Channel.     

Late quaternary sediment sources, storage and transfers within mountain basins using clast lithological analysis: Pineta Basin, central Pyrenees, Spain

Understanding basin-wide sediment dynamics, both spatially and temporally, is an important antecedent to eventual quantitative interpretation of sediment transfer within mountain fluvial systems. This paper describes an attempt to trace sediment transfer modes and pathways using clast lithological analysis in a small mountain basin strongly influenced by glaciation: the Pineta Basin in the central Pyrenees of Spain. The paper interprets slope–channel interaction by encompassing the whole basin, enabling staged sedimentary pathways to be revealed. Additionally, bed-material textures of the modern rivers and youngest La Sarra Terrace were investigated to provide further information on the geomorphic coupling of the system. Relatively few studies have taken this approach. Glacial and later, fluvial systems transferred the sediments creating laterally extensive, polylithological sediment stores. Local depositional systems overprint this inherited signature. To what extent depends on the size and energy of the local system. Significant impacts are made by conduits, such as large-scale fluvially dominated fans and waterfalls, which deliver local lithologies to the main river. Conduits may be part of the main river system or part of the tributary system. Conduits are the most important elements when considering provenance studies and theoretical modelling.     

Hydraulic and sedimentary processes causing anastomosing morphology of the upper Columbia River, British Columbia, Canada

The upper Columbia River, British Columbia, Canada, shows typical anastomosing morphology — multiple interconnected channels that enclose floodbasins — and lateral channel stability. We analysed field data on hydraulic and sedimentary processes and show that the anastomosing morphology of the upper Columbia River is caused by sediment (bedload) transport inefficiency, in combination with very limited potential for lateral bank erosion because of very low specific stream power (≤ 2.3 W/m²) and cohesive silty banks. In a diagram of channel type in relation to flow energy and median grain size of the bed material, data points for the straight upper Columbia River channels cluster separately from the data points for braided and meandering channels. Measurements and calculations indicate that bedload transport in the anastomosing reach of the upper Columbia River decreases downstream. Because of lateral channel stability no lateral storage capacity for bedload is created. Therefore, the surplus of bedload leads to channel bed aggradation, which outpaces levee accretion and causes avulsions because of loss of channel flow capacity. This avulsion mechanism applies only to the main channel of the system, which transports 87% of the water and > 90% of the sediment in the cross-valley transect studied. Because of very low sediment transport capacity, the morphological evolution of most secondary channels is slow. Measurements and calculations indicate that much more bedload is sequestered in the relatively steep upper anastomosing reach of the upper Columbia River than in the relatively gentle lower anastomosing reach. With anastomosing morphology and related processes (e.g., crevassing) being best developed in the upper reach, this confirms the notion of upstream rather than downstream control of upper Columbia River anastomosis.     

Coastal resilience and late Holocene tidal inlet history: The evolution of Dungeness Foreland and the Romney Marsh depositional complex (U.K.)

Dungeness Foreland is a large sand and gravel barrier located in the eastern English Channel that during the last 5000 years has demonstrated remarkable geomorphological resilience in accommodating changes in relative sea-level, storm magnitude and frequency, variations in sediment supply as well as significant changes in back-barrier sedimentation. In this paper we develop a new palaeogeographic model for this depositional complex using a large dataset of recently acquired litho-, bio- and chrono-stratigraphic data. Our analysis shows how, over the last 2000 years, three large tidal inlets have influenced the pattern of back-barrier inundation and sedimentation, and controlled the stability and evolution of the barrier by determining the location of cross-shore sediment and water exchange, thereby moderating sediment supply and its distribution. The sheer size of the foreland has contributed in part to its resilience, with an abundant supply of sediment always available for ready redistribution. A second reason for the landform's resilience is the repeated ability of the tidal inlets to narrow and then close, effectively healing successive breaches by back-barrier sedimentation and ebb- and/or flood-tidal delta development. Humans emerge as key agents of change, especially through the process of reclamation which from the Saxon period onwards has modified the back-barrier tidal prism and promoted repeated episodes of fine-grained sedimentation and channel/inlet infill and closure. Our palaeogeographic reconstructions show that large barriers such as Dungeness Foreland can survive repeated “catastrophic” breaches, especially where tidal inlets are able to assist the recovery process by raising the elevation of the back-barrier area by intertidal sedimentation. This research leads us to reflect on the concept of “coastal resilience” which, we conclude, means little without a clearly defined spatial and temporal framework. At a macro-scale, the structure as a whole entered a phase of recycling and rapid progradation in response to changing sediment budget and coastal dynamics about 2000 years ago. However, at smaller spatial and temporal scales, barrier inlet dynamics have been associated with the initiation, stabilisation and breakdown of individual beaches and complexes of beaches. We therefore envisage multiple scales of “resilience” operating simultaneously across the complex, responding to different forcing agents with particular magnitudes and frequencies.     

River mouth bar formation, riverbed aggradation and channel migration in the modern Huanghe (Yellow) River delta, China

This paper addresses the recent (1970s–1990s) processes of river mouth bar formation, riverbed aggradation and distributary migration in the Huanghe River mouth area, in the light of station-based monitoring, field measurements and remote sensing interpretation. The results show that the morphological changes of the river mouth bar have been closely associated with the largely reduced fluvial discharge and sediment load. Landform development such as bar progradation occurred in two phases, i.e. before and after 1989, which correspond to faster and lower bar growth rates, respectively. Fast riverbed aggradation in the mouth channel was strongly related to river mouth bar progradation. During 1976–1996, about 2.8% of the total sediment loads were deposited in the river channel on the upper to middle delta. Therefore, the river water level rose by a few meters from 1984 to 1996. The frequent distributary channel migration, which switched the radial channel pattern into the SE-directed pattern in the mid-1980s, was linked with mouth bar formation. Marine conditions also constrain seaward bar progradation. Furthermore, the history of river mouth bar formation reflects human impacts, such as dredging and dyking in order to stabilize the coastal area.     

Spatial hydrogeomorphological influences on sediment and nutrient deposition in riparian zones: observations from the Garonne River,France

This paper investigates the influence of geomorphological setting on riparian zone sedimentation within a reach of the River Garonne, France, during three major floods. The sampling design was stratified to reflect landforms constructed by fluvial processes (e.g. floodplain, lateral benches, islands, side channels and point bars). Observed sedimentation varied significantly with flood event, planform context, landform type and associated vegetation cover and, in some cases, with sample location within the landform. Lowest sedimentation was associated with the flood with the smallest peak discharge, peak sediment concentration and sediment load. Sites under natural riparian vegetation experienced higher sedimentation than poplar plantations. Sites on concave (outer) banks received less sedimentation than those on convex (inner banks). Sedimentation on floodplain sites and higher benches was lower than on low benches, point bars and side channels. There was considerable interdependence among these patterns, reflecting the underlying geomorphological forms and processes. Meandering rivers tend to evolve through erosion of concave banks and deposition on convex banks. Point bar features tend to be built along convex banks, whilst concave banks are eroded into higher floodplain and bench features. As a result, concave banks tend to be bordered by higher riparian margins that are less frequently flooded than convex banks. Where river margins are developed for agriculture, the higher, less frequently flooded sites are preferentially selected.Analyses of the quantity, calibre, nutrient and carbon content of the deposited sediment reveal further significant relationships, which reflect the geomorphological structure of the riparian zone. Sediment particle size coarsens in locations with higher amounts of sedimentation. The quantities of total organic carbon (TOC), total organic nitrogen (TON) and total phosphorus (TP) all increase as the quantity of deposited sediment increases. The concentration of TOC and TON also increased significantly with an increase in the percentage of silt plus clay in the deposited sediments.Based upon the above observations, a conceptual model is proposed, which considers the spatial pattern in riparian zone sedimentation according to riparian morphology and flood magnitude. The implications of channel incision for the functioning of the model are also discussed.     

河流过程的累积现象和随机模型

累积现象普遍存在于河流过程中,准确考虑前期水沙条件的累积影响对冲积河流河床演变规律的研究至关重要。为揭示累积现象的物理实质,本文对国内外多条典型冲积河流上枢纽修建后其上下游河道冲淤实测资料进行了分析。定义水沙条件变化为外部扰动,并假定其发生概率符合泊松分布及单个扰动引发的系统反馈强度随时间呈指数衰减。本文运用统计力学中的随机理论给出了冲积河流外部扰动诱发的内部反馈随时间的累积过程及其时空间演进的数学描述和理论模型,并将其应用于枢纽修建后其上下游河道形态时空调整过程的模拟。结果发现,从时间上看,断面垂向、横向及全河段的冲淤调整速率早期较快,之后迅速减缓,河床累积冲刷深度、河宽及河段累积淤积量随时间不断增大直至平衡,表现出典型的累积特性;从空间上看,坝下河段冲刷强度沿程非线性衰减直至消失,这种空间分布上的不平衡是外部扰动引发的系统反馈在空间传播的同时随时间衰减的综合结果,是河流过程累积特性的另一外在表现。模型应用结果表明,河道垂向、横向、纵向及全河段的时空冲淤调整过程均可用归一化公式来描述,计算值与实测值符合较好,相关系数R ²达0.92、0.93、0.76和0.95。本文模型同时考虑了河流过程的累积特性和系统反馈的空间传播特性,可为定量描述扰动后非平衡态河道的时空调整过程提供理论依据和新的计算方法。     

Landscape disequilibrium on 1000–10,000 year scales Marsyandi River, Nepal, central Himalaya

In an actively deforming orogen, maintenance of a topographic steady state requires that hillslope erosion, river incision, and rock uplift rates are balanced over timescales of 10⁵–10⁷ years. Over shorter times, <10⁵ years, hillslope erosion and bedrock river incision rates fluctuate with changes in climate. On 10⁴-year timescales, the Marsyandi River in the central Nepal Himalaya has oscillated between bedrock incision and valley alluviation in response to changes in monsoon intensity and sediment flux. Stratigraphy and ¹⁴C ages of fill terrace deposits reveal a major alluviation, coincident with a monsoonal maximum, ca. 50–35 ky BP. Cosmogenic ¹⁰Be and ²⁶Al exposure ages define an alluviation and reincision event ca. 9–6 ky BP, also at a time of strong South Asian monsoons. The terrace deposits that line the Lesser Himalayan channel are largely composed of debris flows which originate in the Greater Himalayan rocks up to 40 km away. The terrace sequences contain many cubic kilometers of sediment, but probably represent only 2–8% of the sediments which flushed through the Marsyandi during the accumulation period. At 10⁴-year timescales, maximum bedrock incision rates are 7 mm/year in the Greater Himalaya and 1.5 mm/year in the Lesser Himalayan Mahabarat Range. We propose a model in which river channel erosion is temporally out-of-phase with hillslope erosion. Increased monsoonal precipitation causes an increase in hillslope-derived sediment that overwhelms the transport capacity of the river. The resulting aggradation protects the bedrock channel from erosion, allowing the river gradient to steepen as rock uplift continues. When the alluvium is later removed and the bedrock channel re-exposed, bedrock incision rates probably accelerate beyond the long-term mean as the river gradient adjusts downward toward a more “equilibrium” profile. Efforts to document dynamic equilibrium in active orogens require quantification of rates over time intervals significantly exceeding the scale of these millennial fluctuations in rate.