张家界旅游产业生成空间时空格局演化与机制研究

运用旅游地生命周期理论及哈格特空间结构模式理论,尝试性提出旅游产业生成空间的概念和内涵,剖析其周期性特征。并以张家界为实证研究对象,采用最邻近点距离、重心模型、时间同步性等分析方法,从结构、时间和空间3个维度定量解析了张家界旅游产业生成空间的演变过程,推演出张家界旅游产业生成空间时空格局演化的模式与规律,揭示其格局演化的动力机制。结果显示：① 张家界旅游产业生成空间结构总体呈凝聚型分布,内部为“两均两凝”型,重心位置具有明显的周期性移动表征,且空间内部同步性较好,但差异性特征较强;② 张家界旅游产业生成空间时空格局演化经历了出现期点状→生成期核心-边缘→发展期双核两翼东西联动的周期性模式。③ 旅游地地理尺度上 “集聚力”、“路径依赖”和“旅游价值链”是推动张家界旅游产业生成空间演化的综合作用结果。     

浙江陆路交通对区域旅游空间结构及发展的影响研究

基于加权平均出行时间、“板块旅游”空间结构理论、空间计量模型等方法,探讨1996~2016年浙江陆路交通对区域旅游空间结构及发展影响。研究表明：① 交通路网建设带来城市可达性提升,其地理过程、格局呈现围绕“四大都市区”轴带放射状“Π型”演变特征。② 交通网络效应下,新增景区密集分布于邻近中心城市主要对外交通要道两侧,耦合于可达性时空演变,且“板块”旅游地域结构特征显著。③ 空间计量结果发现,交通区位、经济基础、资源禀赋等因素不同程度影响地域旅游经济发展。     

高速交通网络时空结构的阶段性演进及理论模型————以江苏省高速公路交通流网络为例

高速交通网络作为地区社会经济联系空间结构塑造的显著力量,具有关键指征作用.在江苏省内高速公路交通流网络2004年1月-2012年12月连续时空尺度上的三维动态OD数据支撑下,引入非负张量分解的时空分析方法,对高速公路交通流网络阶段性演进特征和时空结构分析基础上,尝试提炼其理论模型.结论如下:① 江苏省高速公路交通流网络时间结构具有明显的三阶段特征,分别为2004年1月-2005年4月,2005年5月-2008年6月和2008年7月-2012年12月,对应的空间结构由倒"T"字型向倒"下"字型,再向倒"不"字型演变.② 阶段性演进是整体演化过程的重要组成部分,在长尺度上表现为趋势的分段而在小尺度上则为波动结构变化,江苏省高速公路交通流网络现正处于网络提升充实阶段.③ 基于江苏省的实证,归纳演绎了一个由路网离散分布--局部网络建构--区域初步连通--区域发育成网--网络提升充实--网络一体化的6阶段理论模型.     

浙江省制造业空间分异格局及其影响因素

基于中国规模以上工业企业数据,运用标准差椭圆、空间自相关、热点分析和核密度估计等多种空间统计方法,从省域、区域、县域及县域以下多个空间尺度,对1998年、2003年、2008年和2013年浙江省制造业企业空间分异格局进行点、面结合测度,并运用地理探测器,解析影响全省以及杭嘉湖绍、宁台温舟和金衢丽三大区域制造业企业空间分布的地理因子。结果表明：① 浙江省制造业企业空间集聚程度呈递减态势,空间分布沿着“西南-东北-西北”的Z字型路径向外扩散; ② 浙江制造业经历了“三核并立”-“三核多中心”-“三核连片发展多中心”空间分异格局; ③ 环杭州湾地区一直处于全省制造业热点地区,浙江省冷热点区域空间格局大体呈现“东北-西南”的走向; ④ 影响全省制造业企业分异格局的核心因素主要为信息化、地形、市场规模、城镇化和技术创新等,影响三大区域制造业空间布局的核心因素存在时空差异性。     

合肥经济圈空间关联时空演进研究

从城市产业角度出发,依据2009~2014年的相关数据,采用城市流和ESDA模型对合肥经济圈空间关联进行分析,揭示空间相互作用的时间演变过程和空间分布。结果表明：① 经济圈形成了较稳定的中心-外围格局,空间结构呈现以合肥为中心圈层式向外辐射状,淮南和六安有望成为次增长极。② 经济圈产业外向功能性不强且出现异化,城市流倾向度呈现明显的等级异质性和不均衡性。③ 经济圈产业外向发展存在显著的空间依赖性,空间自相关符合距离衰减规律。④ 经济圈区域不平衡态势明显,空间关联的时空分异特征明显。应推进区域一体化,加快区域协调发展。     

电子商务背景下县域物流的空间联系及其网络结构研究 ——以浙江省为例

互联网及移动互联网纵深拓展,电子商务随之发展壮大,县域物流的空间结构也加速演进,研究基于空间联系视角,通过引力模型、社会网络分析等方法刻画了浙江省县域物流空间联系特征及其网络结构,得出以下结论：① 空间联系网络的“核心-边缘”格局清晰,最大引力线核心区域结构较为稳定,边缘区的竞争演进仍在继续,而且空间联系格局层级性较为明显,浙北、浙东及浙中的网络复杂度稳步提升;② 物流空间联系势能的空间分布呈现从南到北逐渐集聚的趋势,与电子商务发展水平的空间拟合度较高;③ 物流网络多中心性格局演化呈稳定均衡化发展,在电子商务发展影响下,逐渐形成以杭州市辖区、宁波市辖区、义乌市、温州市辖区等为主导的四大县域物流圈。     

公众参与型环境规制的时空格局及驱动因子研究——以长江经济带为例

以长江经济带公众参与型环境规制为研究对象,运用空间分析方法研究其时空格局,通过地理探测器筛选其主导驱动因子,基于GWR（Geographically Weighted Regression）模型揭示主导驱动因子空间异质性。结果表明：① 各年份公众参与型环境规制均呈显著空间正相关,但集聚程度逐年下降;② 公众参与型环境规制空间分异格局基本稳定;③ 地理探测器剔除地均固定资产投资和万人在校大学生数两个初选因子;④ 公众参与型环境规制驱动因子作用力由大到小依次为环境风险、人地压力、排放强度、信息化水平、经济水平、产业结构;⑤ 各驱动因子存在特征不同的空间异质性,为制定针对性政策提供理论依据。     

基于战略性新兴产业的长江三角洲城市网络结构演变研究

基于2004~2013年战略性新兴产业上市公司跨区布址数据,运用社会网络分析法对长江三角洲城市群空间结构演变规律进行了分析。研究发现：① 长江三角洲城市网络的主要联系流由 “Z”字形空间结构演变为“金字塔”形结构。② 高行政级别城市在网络要素资源配置中占据主导地位,省会城市的中介能力呈现“倒U”型发展趋势。③ 沪杭宁甬苏合6城市构成了长三角城市网络的核心层,核心-边缘层联系成为占据主导地位的联系方式;城市网络凝聚子群具有明显的地理粘着性,沪宁和杭州凝聚子群分别是群内联系和群际联系的标杆。     

河南省基本公共服务质量空间格局与空间效应研究

构建基本公共服务质量评价指标体系,对河南省基本公共服务水平和空间格局特征进行了分析,最后采用空间杜宾模型研究了基本公共服务的空间溢出效应与影响因素。研究发现：① 2005~2014年河南省各市基本公共服务水平呈不同程度的上升趋势,但整体水平不高;空间格局上呈自西北向东南衰减的半环带圈层结构。② 基本公共服务在市际尺度上具有显著的全局与局部自相关特征,随时间呈现集聚-分散-集聚的演变模式;高高集聚与低低集聚的空间俱乐部趋同特征明显。③ 空间杜宾模型检验表明基本公共服务空间上存在溢出效应;城镇化水平、地方政府财政支出能力、地方经济发展活力对基本公共服务具有正向促进作用。     

基于高速公路流的江苏省城市网络空间结构与演化特征

高速交通网络是城市网络发育的重要指示器。以江苏省2004~2012年的高速公路流数据为支撑,辅以路网为背景,借助社区发现模型对其城市网络的空间结构与演化过程进行分析。结论如下：① 城市网络的演化由稀疏到稠密,但“南密北疏”的宏观格局与松散化的空间结构未发生明显改变;② 不同年份城市网络的空间结构可视为由多个“城市社区”组成,并凸显一体化效应、行政区效应、袭夺与被袭夺效应等区域效应;③ 苏南、苏中和苏北的空间关联特征可分别概括为“一体化、多层次”“由均一到分化”和“破碎化、分散化”的网络结构。在此基础上,归纳了一个涵盖城镇化中早期、中期和中后期的“破碎化、分散化网络-逐步分化的多层级网络-多中心、多层级网络”三阶段的城市网络演化模型。     

BOOK REVIEWS

Book Reviewed in this article: Development and Environment in Peninsular Malaysia . S. Robert Aiken, Colin H. Leigh, Thomas R. Leinbach, Michael R. Moss. The Rural-Urban Fringe: Canadian Perspectives . Ken B. Beesley and Lorne H. Russwurm, eds. Women and Development . Lourdes Benería, ed. The Border that Joins: Mexican Migrants and U.S. Responsibility . Peter G. Brown and Henry Shue, eds. Cities of the World: World Regional Urban Development . Stanley D. Brunn and Jack L. Williams, eds. Time Resources, Society, and Ecology: On the Capacity for Human Interaction in Space and Time (Vol. I, Preindustrial Societies). Tommy Carlstein. Urban Geography . David Clark. Spanish City Planning in North America . Dora P. Crouch, Daniel J. Garr, and Axel I. Mundigo. Not On Our Street: Community Attitudes to Mental Health Care . M. J. Dear and S. M. Taylor Unequal growth: Urban and Regional Employment Change in the U.K. Stephen Fothergill and Graham Gudgin. Agricultural Land in an Urban Society . Owen J. Furuseth and John T. Pierce. The Petroleum Industry in Oil-Importing Developing Countries . Fariborz Ghadar. Historical Understanding in Geography, An Idealist Approach . Leonard Guelke. Regional Planning in Europe . R. Hudson and J. R. Lewis, eds. Remote Sensing for Resource Management . Chris J. Johannsen and James L. Sanders, eds. Geography and The State . R. J. Johnston. Texas Graveyards: a Cultural Legacy . Tlrry G. Jordan. The Politics of Location: An Introduction . Andrew Kirby. A Social Geography of the City . David Ley. Energy and the Future . Douglas MacLean and Peter Brown, eds. The Natural Environment of Newfoundland Past and Present . A. G. Macpherson and J. B. Macpherson, eds. Tourism: Economic, Physical and Social Impacts . Alister Mathieson and Geoffrey Wall. Railroads and Land Grant Policy: A Study in Government Intervention . Lloyd J. Mercer. Progress in Rural Geography . Michael Pacione, ed. Progress in Urban Geography . Michael Pacione, ed. Models of Spatial Inequality: Settlement Patterns in Historical Archaeology . Robert Paynter. Natural Hazard Risk Assessment and Public Policy, Anticipating the Unexpected . William J. Petak and Arthur A. Atkisson. The Nature of Geomorphology . Alistair F. Pitty. Regional Conflict and National Policy . Kent A. Price Women and Spatial Change: Learning Resources for Social Science Courses . Arlene C. Rengert and Janice J. Monk, eds. Urban and Regional Analysis for Development Planning . Richard Rhoda. Rivers: Form and Process in Alluvial Channels . Keith Richards. This Remarkable Continent: An Atlas of United States and Canadian Society and Culture . John F. Rooney, Jr., Wilbur Zelinsky, and Dean R. Louder, gen. eds. The Origins of Open-Field Agriculture . Trevor Rowley, ed. Residential Location Determinants of the Older Population . Gundars Rudzitis. Borderland Sourcebook: A Guide to the Literature on Northern Mexico and the American Southwest . Ellwyn R. Stoddard, Richard L. Nostrand, and Jonathan P. West, eds. Arctic and Antarctic . David Sugden. Tall Timbers Ecology and Management Conference, February 22–24, 1979, Proceedings No. 16 . Graphic Communication and Design in Contemporary Cartography (Progress in Contemporary Cartography , Vol. II). D. R. Fraser Taylor, ed. Living with Energy Shortfall: A Future for American Towns and Cities . Jon Van Til. The United States: Habitation of Hope . J. Wreford Watson. Air Photo Interpretation for Archaeologists . D. R. Wilson. Urban and Rural Change in West Germany . Trevor Wild, ed. Population and Resources . Harry Robinson.     

BOOK REVIEWS

Book Reviewed in this article: Geography and the Third World. International Seminar, 14–18 May 1980, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia . Ishmail Ahmad and Jamaluddin Md Jahi, eds. The Growth Dilemma: Residents' Views and Local Population Change in the United States . Mark Baldassare. Sport and Place: A Geography of Sport in England, Scotland & Wales . John Bale. The Deindustrialization of America: Plant Closings, Community Abandonment, and the Dismantling of Basic Industry . Barry Bluestone and Bennett Harrison. Selected Essays 1963–1975: Carl O. Sauer . Bob Callahen, ed. Housing and Planning in the Countryside . G. Clark. Conflict, Politics and the Urban Scene . Kevin R. Cox and R. J. Johnston, eds. Thematic Maps: Their Design and Production . David J. Cuff and Mark T. Mattson. Wine: A Geographic Appreciation . Harm Jan de Blij. USSR in Maps . J. C. Dewdney. Political Geography: A Contemporary Perspective . Ramesh D. Dikshit. Rethinking Human Adaptation . Rada Dyson-Hudson and Michael A. Little, eds. Sacred Sands: The Struggle for Community in the indiana Dunes . J. Ronald Engel. Geography of the Biosphere . A. Furley and Walter W. Newey. Disaster and Reconstruction . Robert Geipel. Glasgow: The Making of a City . Andrew Gibb. Design for Arid Regions . Giden S. Golany, ed. Urbanization and Cancer Mortality: The United States Experience, 1950–1975 . Michael R. Greenberg. Geology in the Nineteenth Century: Changing Views of a Changing World . Mott T. Greene. Colonización y Destrucción de Bosques en Panamá . Stanley Heckadon Moreno and Alberto McKay, eds. Urban Geography: A First Approach . David T. Herbert and Colin J. Thomas. The Visual and Spatial Structure of Landscapes . Tadahiko Higuchi. Climate from Tree Rings . M. K. Hughes, P. M. Kelly, J. R. Pilcher, and V. C. LaMarche, Jr., eds. The structure of Nineteenth Century Cities . James H. Johnson and Colin G. Pooley, eds. The American Planner: Biographies and Recollections . Donald A. Krueckeberg, ed. Urban Land Policy For the 1980s, the Message for State and Local Government . George Lefcoe, ed. Regional Planning: Evolution, Crisis and Prospects . Gill C. Lim, ed. Relevance and Ethics In Geography . Bruce Mitchell and Dianne Draper. China: The Geography of Development and Modernization . Clifton W. Pannell and Laurence J. C. MA. The Urban Retailing System . Robert B. Potter. Hants. Nonconventional Energy Resources . Philip R. Pryde. Caribbean Migrants: Environment and Human Survival on St. Kitts and Nevis . Bonham C. Richardson. Population and Resources . Harry Robinson. East Los Angeles: History of A Barrio . Ricardo Romo. Integrated Impact Assessment . Frederick A. Rossini and Alan L. Porter, eds. Environmental Aesthetics: Essays in Interpretation . Barry Sadler and Allen Carlson, eds. Earthwatch . Charles Sheffield. Field Techniques and Research Methods in Geography . Robert H. Stoddard. Haiti: Land of Poverty . Robert J. Tata. Weathering and Erosion: Sources and Methods in Geography . Stephen T. Trudgill. Once Beneath the Forest. Prehistoric Terracing in the Río Bec Region of the Maya Lowlands . B. L. Turner, II. The Historical Geography of Scotland since 1707 . David Turnock.     

PRODUCTIVITY OF AMERICAN PH.D.-GRANTING DEPARTMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY

Reviews of geographic software in this article:

DEMO-GRAPHICS: WORLD POPULATIONS AND PROJECTIONS.

ESP

GAUSS.

CEMODEL S. Damus

LIMDEP. William H. Greene

MICROSTAT 4.1

OTIS

PCIPS. (Personal Computer Image Processing System). H.J. Meyers and R. Bernstein.

REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF TIME SERIES (RATS)

SPSS/PC+

URBAN DATA MANAGEMENT SOFTWARE (UDMS)     

Deserts and Aeolian Desertification in China: Book review and some thoughts

Desertification is a global phenomenon that affects about two billion people. It occurs in arid zones where the annual precipitation is below 400 mm, partic- ularly in the marginal areas of the world＇s largest deserts. It is a result of water and wind erosion, over- grazing, global warm-ing, improper soil cultivation, and increased pressure ot population growth, and it causes degradation of soil and natural and agricultural vegetation. The direct result is less food for people and livestock, which influences pop- ulation and animal husbandry fluctuations. Despite ef- forts to combat and reduce desertification, the affected areas are annually increasing.     

BOOK REVIEWS

Book Reviewed in this article: Rabat: Urban Apartheid in Morocco . Janet Abu -Lughod . Marketplaces in a Developing Country: The Case of Western Nigeria . Isaac Ayinde Adalemo . Farming Development and Space: A World Agricultural Geography . Bernd Andreae . Section and Party: A Political Geography of American Presidential Elections, from Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reagan . J. Clark Archer and Peter J. Taylor . Women and Space: Ground Rules and Social Maps . Shirley Ardener , ed. European Progress in Spatial Analysis . R. J. Bennett , ed. The Origins of Academic Geography in the United States . Brian W. Blouet Geographic Perspectives on Global Problems . Ronald Reed Boyce . Seasonal Dimensions to Rural Poverty . Robert Chambers , Richard Longhurst and Arnold Pacey eds. The New Nationalism and the Use of Common Spaces: Issues in Marine Pollution and the Exploitation of Antarctica . Jonathan I. Charney , ed. Communications Tomorrow: The Coming of the Information Society . Edward Cornish , ed. The Design of Suburbia . Arthur Edwards . Explorer on the Northern Plains: Lieutenant Gouverneur K. Warren's Preliminary Report of Explorations in Nebraska and Dakota in the Years 1855–56–57. With an Introduction by Frank N. Schubert . The Changing Climate: Responses of the Natural Flora and Fauna . Michael J. Ford . Essentials of Physical Geography . Robert E. Gabler , Robert J. Sager , Sheila Brazier , and Daniel L. Wise. The Road to Jaramillo . William Glen . Valued Environments . John R. Gold and Jacquelin Burgess , eds. Proximity and Preference: Problems in the Multidimensional Analysis of Large Data Sets . Reginald G. Golledge and John N. Rayner , eds. A Search for Common Ground . Peter Gould and Gunnar Olsson , eds. Geography: Its History and Concepts . Arild Holt -Jensen . A Population Geography . Huw R. Jones . The Human Mosaic: A Thematic Introduction to Cultural Geography, 3rd ed. Terry G. Jordan and Lester Rowntree . Urban Social Geography: An Introduction . Paul Knox . The Anatomy of Job Loss: The How, Why and Where of Employment Decline . Doreen Massey and Richard Meegan . The Information Society as Post-Industial Society . Yoneji Masuda . Map Librarianship, 2nd ed. Harold Nichols . India: Cultural Patterns and Processes . Allen G. Noble and Ashok K. Dutt , eds. The God that Limps: Science and Technology in the Eighties . Colin Norman . Geography: An Introductory Perspective . Robert E. Norris , Keith D. Harries and John D. Vitek . The Politics of Technology Assessment . David M. O'Brien and Donald A. Marchand . Ethnic Segregation in Cities . Ceri Peach , Vaughan Robinson and Susan Smith , eds. Churches and Church Membership in the United States, 1980 . Bernard Quinn , Herman Anderson , Martin Bradley , Paul Goetting and Peggy Shriver . Energy in Australia: Politics and Economics . Hugh Saddler . Development from Above or Below? The Dialectics of Regional Planning in Developing Countries . Walter B. Stóuhr and D. R. Fraser Taylor , eds. Human Impact on the Ecosystem . Joy Tivy and Greg O'Hare . Plants and People: Vegetation Change in North America . Thomas R. Vale . The Mapmakers: The Story of the Great Pioneers in Cartography from Antiquity to the Space Age . John Noble Wilford .     

BOOK REVIEWS

Book Reviewed in this article: The Rice Economy of Asia . Randolph Barker and Robert W. Herdt with Beth Rose. Using Microcomputers: A Guidebook for Writers, Teachers, and Researchers in the Social Sciences . Blaine A. Erie—the Lake that Survived . Noel M. Burns. Geology and Society . Donald R. Coates. Caves and Karst of Kentucky . Percy H. Dougherty, ed. Altered Harvest: Agriculture, Genetics, and the Fate of the World's Food Supply . Jack Doyle. The Middle East and North Africa, A Political Geography . Alasdair Drysdale and Gerald H. Blake. Clamor at the Gates. The New American Immigration . Nathan Glazer, ed. Development and the Landowner: An analysis of the British experience . Robin Goodchild and Richard Munton. Discovering Landscape in England and Wales . Andrew Goudie and Rita Gardner. The Modern Plantation in the Third World . Edgar Graham and Ingrid Floering. Social Relations and Spatial Structures . Derek Gregory and John Urry, eds. The World Food Problem 1950–1980 . David Grigg. Costa Rica: A Geographical Interpretation in Historical Perspective . Carolyn Hall. The Urbanization of Capital: Studies in the History and Theory of Capitalist Urbanization . David Harvey Consciousness and the Urban Experience: Studies in the History and Theory of Capitalist Urbanization . David Harvey. Reviving Main Street . Deryck Holdsworth, ed. Rural Roads and Poverty Alleviation . John Howe and Peter Richards, eds. Uneven Development in Southern Europe: Studies of Accumulation, Class, Migration and the State . Ray Hudson and Jim Lewis, eds. Karst Geomorphology . J. N. Jennings. The Geomorphology of North-west England . R. H. Johnson, ed. Climate Impact Assessment: Studies of the Interaction of Climate and Society . Robert Kates, Jesse Ausubel, Mimi Berberian, eds. Public Service Provision and Urban Development . Andrew Kirby, Paul Knox, and Steven Pinch, ed. State and Market: The Politics of the Public and the Private . Jan-Erik Lane, ed. Living Cities . Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on Urban Preservation Policies. World Climatic Systems . John G. Lockwood. Urban Ethnicity in the United States. New Immigrants and Old Minorities . Lionel Maldonaldo and Joan Moore, eds. Culture and Conservation: The Human Dimension in Environmental Planning . Jeffrey A. McNeely and David Pitt, eds. The Andean Past. Land, Societies, and Conflicts . Magnus Mörner. Gaia: An Atlas of Planet Management . Norman Myers, ed. Progress in Industrial Geography . Michael Pacione, ed. Progress in Political Geography . Michael Pacione, ed. Rivers and Landscape . Geoff Petts and Ian Foster. Urbanization and Planning in the 3rd World: Spatial Perceptions and Public Participation . Robert B. Potter. One Island, Two Nations? A Political Geographical Analysis of the National Conflict in Ireland . D. G. Pringle. Circulation in Third World Countries . R. Mansell Prothero and Murray Chapman. The Ozarks Outdoors: A Guide for Fishermen, Hunters, and Tourists . Milton D. Rafferty. Suburban Burglary: A Time and a Place for Everything . George Rengert and John Wasilchick. Geomorphology and Soils . K.S. Richards, R.R. Arnett, and S. Ellis, eds. The Homes and Homeless of Post-War Britain . Frederick Shaw. Indochinese Refugees in America . Paul J. Strand and Woodrow Jones, Jr. Wild Horses and Sacred Cows . Richard Symanski. Forever Wild: Environmental Aesthetics and the Adirondack Forest Preserve . Philip G. Terrie. The Regional Economic Impact of Technological Change . A.T. Thwaites and R.P. Oakey, eds. The Good Life . Yi-Fu Tuan.     

REVIEWS OF GEOGRAPHIC SOFTWARE

Reviews of geographic software in this article: DEMO-GRAPHICS: WORLD POPULATIONS AND PROJECTIONS. ESP GAUSS. CEMODEL S. Damus LIMDEP. William H. Greene MICROSTAT 4.1 OTIS PCIPS. (Personal Computer Image Processing System) . H.J. Meyers and R. Bernstein. REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF TIME SERIES (RATS) SPSS/PC+ URBAN DATA MANAGEMENT SOFTWARE (UDMS)     

Guidelines to Authors

1. Aims and scope
Sciences in Cold and Arid Regions （SCAR） is a bimonthly journal that publishes in English the latest research achievements in processes and the pattems of the Earth surface system in cold and arid regions. Researches in cold regions emphasize particularly on the cold-region-characterized physical,