Precipitable water over Canada

Numerical experiments have been performed to determine the way in which initial errors of relatively small horizontal extent propagate in a barotropic primitive equations model. Six‐day forecasts are made with the model, starting from initial conditions which are assumed to be free from errors. The forecasts are then repeated using the same initial data, except for a small area near the Gulf of Alaska where an error in the form of a low pressure system is added. The difference between the two forecasts, or error, is then examined as a function of time. The results obtained from sixteen cases run with winter data indicate that on the average the largest value in the error pattern travels, in six days, from the Gulf of Alaska to the western tip of the Great Lakes and decreases in amplitude by a factor slightly greater than 2 for an initial amplitude of 8.4 dam at 500 mb. The root mean square error computed over the entire forecast area, on the other hand, is found to remain nearly constant for the first 24 hours and to increase systematically thereafter, with a doubling time of 5 days.     

动态环境下PPP的GNSS大气水汽反演

利用静态PPP（精密单点定位）处理稳定的GNSS地面站可以高精度反演大气中的水汽含量.对于运动的载体,静态PPP无法正确地估计待估参数.利用动态PPP数据处理方法,在解算载体动态位置的同时,可以估计动态载体GNSS的天顶总延迟,并在此基础上计算水汽含量.分别利用PPP动态和静态模型解算3.5 h的稳定可靠GNSS参考站数据,结果表明,动态PPP与静态PPP利用稳定CORS站解算大气可降水量（PWV）时,最大差别为6.6 mm,且水汽的变化趋势基本一致.在快速运动平台下,旋转平台解算的PWV与相同环境下的CORS站解算的水汽结果在量级上一致,但并不能像CORS站结果一样可以反映出水汽的变化趋势.针对地震等GNSS台站失稳问题,分别利用动态、静态PPP进行水汽的提取,结果表明,地震的短期形变对PPP水汽的提取无明显影响.建议使用静态PPP对失稳GNSS台站进行水汽提取.     

Vertically integrated moisture flux convergence as a predictor of thunderstorms

Vertically Integrated Moisture Flux Convergence (VIMFC) alone and in combination with the lifted stability index of the most unstable layer (SMUL) is evaluated as a thunderstorm predictor. By using six-hourly standard pressure weather analysis data from the European Centre for Medium-range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) during 30 days in the summers of 1992 and 1994 containing several severe weather events along with quiescent events in northwestern Europe 17,206 events are obtained. The location and time of a lightning discharge are obtained from the Arrival Time Difference (ATD) sferics lightning location system from the UK Meteorological Office. Using the Heidke Skill Score (HEIDKE) to determine the best threshold we conclude that VIMFC alone, does not perform well as a dichotomous thunderstorm predictor compared to the stability index. However, the Thundery Case Probability (TCP) tested as function of VIMFC results in a high correlation with thunderstorms. By combining SMUL and VIMFC the surplus value as a thunderstorm predictor of VIMFC was established. TCP percentages up to 95% were found in an unstable environment with high positive values of VIMFC. In a marginally unstable environment with a high positive VIMFC the thunderstorm probability is higher than in a very unstable environment with no or negative VIMFC. These results are illustrated with a study of the case of the disastrous flash flood at Vaison-La-Romaine (southeastern France) on September 22, 1992. Although latent instability was present in a large area surrounding Vaison-La-Romaine, nearly all and especially the most severe thunderstorm activity occurred within the smaller area with positive VIMFC and latent instability.     

Precipitable water vapor estimation in India from GPS-derived zenith delays using radiosonde data

One of the most recent applications of global positioning system (GPS) is the estimation of precipitable water vapor (PWV). It requires proper modeling to extract PWV from zenith wet delay (ZWD). The existing global models take no account of latitudinal and seasonal variation of meteorological parameters in the atmosphere. In fact, they ignore the atmospheric conditions at a specific location. Therefore, site-specific PWV models have been developed for five stations spread over the Indian subcontinent, using 3-year (2006–2008) radiosonde data from each of these stations. Furthermore, a similar regional PWV model is also developed for the Indian region. The purpose of the developed site-specific as well as regional model was to convert ZWDs into PWV without using surface meteorological parameters. It has been found that the developed regional and site-specific PWV models show about mm-level accuracy in estimating PWV using derived ZWD from radiosonde as input. The developed site-specific, regional models were also used to extract PWV from GPS-derived ZWD at Bangalore and New Delhi. The accuracy of the developed site-specific and regional model is of the same level. The PWV accuracy obtained with the developed regional model is about 6.28, 6.6 mm in comparison to radiosonde PWV at Bangalore and New Delhi, respectively.     

Why radiative forcing might fail as a predictor of climate change

Radiative forcing has been widely used as a metric of climate change, i.e. as a measure by which various contributors to a net surface temperature change can be quantitatively compared. The extent to which this concept is valid for spatially inhomogeneous perturbations to the climate system is tested. A series of climate model simulations involving ozone changes of different spatial structure reveals that the climate sensitivity parameter is highly variable: for an ozone increase in the northern hemisphere lower stratosphere, it is more than twice as large as for a homogeneous CO₂ perturbation. A global ozone perturbation in the upper troposphere, however, causes a significantly smaller surface temperature response than CO₂. The variability of the climate sensitivity parameter is shown to be mostly due to the varying strength of the stratospheric water vapour feedback. The variability of the sea-ice albedo feedback modifies climate sensitivity of perturbations with the same vertical structure but a different horizontal structure. This feedback is also the origin of the comparatively larger climate sensitivity to perturbations restricted to the northern hemisphere extratropics. As cloud feedback does not operate independently from the other feedbacks, quantifying its effect is rather difficult. However, its effect on the variability of for horizontally and vertically inhomogeneous perturbations within one model framework seems to be comparatively small.This revised version was published online March 2005 with corrections to table 5.     

Precipitable water evaluations from infrared sun‐photometric measurements analyzed using the atmospheric hygrometry technique

Measurements of direct solar irradiance were taken employing 4 different sun‐photometers at near infrared wavelengths, suitable for use in atmospheric hygrometry. This technique utilising a set of spectral ratios, in and out of selected water vapour absorption bands, was applied to the measurements to obtain accurate evaluations of precipitable water. For all the hygrometric ratios given by the 4 sun‐photometers used at the 3 stations of Sagres, Monchique and Mt. Foia, during the CLEARCOLUMN experiment, we determined the calibration curves by correcting them for the Rayleigh scattering effects and, then, plotting the natural logarithms of such corrected ratios versus the square root of the water vapour mass present along the atmospheric slant path. The regression lines drawn for the various scatter diagrams were estimated to give evaluations of precipitable water with an uncertainty of less than 5%, 3% and 10% at the 3 stations, respectively. The calibration curves of the sun‐photometer located at the Sagres station were determined using the precipitable water evaluations obtained from the local radiosounding measurements taken on 5 clear‐sky days. Those of the sun‐photometers used at the Monchique and Mt. Foia stations were instead determined through intercomparison between subsets of measurements simultaneously taken with various instruments at Sagres and Mt. Foia. Using these calibration curves, we examined all the field measurements determining the time‐patterns of precipitable water at the 3 stations. During the period from 16 June to 25 July 1997, precipitable water was found to vary between 1.1 and 3.7 g cm⁻² at the Sagres station (with an accuracy within ±13%), between 1.0 and 2.8 g cm⁻² at Monchique (±11%) and between 0.8 and 3.0 g cm⁻² at the top of Mt. Foia (±26%).     

Modelling the height,temperature and relative humidity of a well-mixed planetary boundary layer over a water surface

A vertically integrated model of a developing boundary layer over a wet surface is presented, and the expected change in the relative humidity is discussed. For the case of cold air moving over a water surface of constant temperature, analytical solutions of the model equations are obtained, giving the height, temperature and relative humidity of the boundary layer as functions of the distance travelled by the air column. The relation to the problem of sea smoke is discussed.     

四川上空大气可降水量时空分布特征

本文利用94个气象台站30 a地面湿度参量资料,采用通过地面水汽压计算大气可降水量的经验公式,分析了四川上空大气可降水量时空分布特征,初步评估了四川地区的空中水资源。结果表明:(1)四川地区空中水资源十分丰富,开发潜力巨大:东部盆地区全年大气可降水量为1178.11 cm、降水效率8.98%;西部高山高原区全年大气可降水量为321.06 cm、降水效率21.16%。(2)大气可降水量和降水效率空间分布明显不均匀,东部盆地区大气可降水量远远高于西部高山高原区,降水效率则是西部高山高原区高于东部盆地区。(3)大气可降水量季节变化明显,一年之中夏季最多,秋季次之,冬季最少。西部高山高原区大气可降水量季节差异尤其显著。(4)30 a来,大气可降水量波动略呈线性增多,大气可降水量年际变化小。     

MODIS近红外大气可降水含量与乌鲁木齐地基GPS水汽数据的对比分析

本研究在建立HDF数据图像显示、数据提取和分析平台的基础上,利用乌鲁木齐地基的GPS水汽数据,对比分析了2004年6月2日-8月2日之间37d的MODIS近红外大气可降水含量的精度.发现MODIS反演的近红外PW系统性地比GPS探测的PW偏小,但在变化趋势上是相似的,说明MODIS反演的近红外大气可降水含量还是能够反映水汽的变化趋势.37d中降水出现的日期对应于PW的大值日期,尤其与GPS的大PW日数非常吻合.MODIS近红外大气柱可降水含量能够提供大面积水汽空间分布数据.每天一次的水汽分布数据能够用于研究水汽的时空分布和气候特征.该研究开发的MODIS水汽数据分析处理平台也可应用于其它MODIS反演产品的分析,如地表面温度、气溶胶光学厚度等.     

Precipitable water over the tropical Indian Ocean derived from NIMBUS 7 satellite data — A case study

The data from the Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer (SMMR) sensor on board the NIMBUS 7 satellite in the 18 and 21 Ghz channels are used to derive the Precipitable Water (PW) over the tropical Indian Ocean for the period May–September, 1979. The PW values are derived by using both the horizontal and vertical polarization channels. These PW values along with the satellite-derived sea surface temeprature (SST) and the lower tropospheric wind (UW) data reveal the features of the summer monsoon circulation of the tropical Indian Ocean in 1979. Further, the derived PW values from Nimbus 7 SMMR data agree well with features of PW presented by Cadet (1983) inferred from the TIROS—N soundings and FGGE data.     

GMS-5 估计可降水量的研究

文章证明了由静止气象卫星GMS-5的分裂窗通道和水汽通道亮温反演可降水量的可行性,探讨了GMS-5红外通道亮温与可降水量的关系,建立了由3个通道亮温反演可降水量的经验公式。用60组大气平均廓线,对公式模拟检验误差为0.18 g/cm2,而用实际124组探空和对应的GMS-5亮温资料进行检验,误差0.40 g/cm2。用得到的经验公式可反演大范围的晴空可降水量分布。     

一次降水过程的GPS可降水量资料同化试验

选取2005年7月23—24日北京、天津、河北地区的一次强降水过程,利用MM5模式进行数值模拟试验和GPS可降水量资料的伴随同化试验。为了检验GPS可降水量资料对模式湿度场的改善程度和伴随同化效果,采用24h降水TS评分、模拟湿度场与真实场的均方差和实况降水等检验方法,通过温度场、高度场和风场的均方差试验,结果证明加入GPS可降水量资料在改善初始湿度场的同时对初始温度场、高度场和风场也有不同程度的改善。     

降水性层状云微物理结构个例分析

对2000年4月14日河南省一次降水性层状云系进行了飞机探测。利用探测所取得的微物理资料，配合同期的天气、卫星、雷达等资料对云的微物理特征进行了分析，讨论了云中液态水含量、云粒子平均直径和粒子谱等的水平和垂直微物理结构特征。     

应用GPS可降水量分析河北省一次回流降雪天气

利用地基GPS反演的可降水量资料、地面加密自动站和常规天气资料,对2011年2月发生在河北省的一次回流降雪天气过程进行了分析.结果表明:①降雪过程前期,GPS可降水量由西南向东北逐渐增大,后期自北向南减小,与西南暖湿气流的输送和地面冷高压的南压对应.②第1阶段降雪的主要影响系统为高空槽,GPS可降水量不断增加,对应的实际降水也是先增后减;第2阶段的降雪主要表现为回流降雪,降雪前期GPS可降水量迅速增长,实际降水出现在GPS可降水量峰值及下降阶段.随着地面冷高压逐渐南压,GPS可降水量逐渐下降,实际降水也逐渐减弱至停止.③在探空层结曲线上,高湿层位于地面附近和700 hPa附近,而二者之间的近地层存在着低湿层.     

大气可降水量估算模型研究

利用SuomiNet网GPS大气可降水量数据和地面气象数据研究建立大气可降水量估算模型.利用研究区域GPS PWV和地面气象数据,研究了大气可降水量与地面水汽压间的相关性,并建立二者间的线性、二次多项式和幂函数回归模型,对比分析各模型的估算精度以确定最优估算模型,并检验了不同大气水汽含量下最优模型的估算精度.得出以下结论:1)GPS大气可降水量与地面水汽压变化趋势基本一致,存在着良好的相关关系(相关系数达到0.892).2)基于地面水汽压的线性、二次多项式和幂函数模型估算大气可降水量均达到一定的估算精度(相对误差均小于19％),其中幂函数估算模型的R2最高,估算误差最小.3)基于地面水汽压的PWV估算模型具有地域性特征,基于研究区域数据所建立的模型更适合于研究区域,其PWV估算精度高于Cole模型、张学文模型和李超模型.4)所建估算模型在不同的大气水汽含量条件下估算精度不同,大汽水汽含量越高,估算结果的相对误差越小.     

降水性层状云系中过冷水的分布特征

统计分析了降水性层状云系中过冷水出现的频率、过冷水区尺度、云水含量的分布特征,以及云中总的粒子尺度谱,为人工增雨作业提供重要依据。     

西南地区可降水量时空分布和变化特征

利用NCEP 1980-2009年可降水量的逐月再分析资料,分析了30年来西南地区可降水量的时空分布特征和变化趋势.结果表明：受地形等地理环境和气候的影响,西南地区年、季节可降水量分布均有显著的地区性差异,东南多,西北少;可降水量的季节变化明显,夏季远大于冬季,秋季略高于春季;可降水量的年内分配不均,7月最大,8月次之,1月最少;30年来,西南地区年可降水量呈波动变化,略有增加,偏多和偏少年交替出现,春季和冬季可降水量呈线性增多.西南地区可降水量空间分布既有整体一致型,也存在反向型.