Electrochemical characterization of pyrrhotite reactivity under simulated weathering conditions

A previously reported methodology applied to evaluate the factors affecting the reactivity pyrite and pyritic samples under simulated weathering conditions is now utilized to analyze pyrrhotite reactivity at different environmental alteration stages. The methodology is based on the comparison of the voltammetric responses of the mineral obtained through the alteration process; changes in the electrochemical behavior are associated with changes in the surface state of the mineral and finally are related with changes of the mineral reactivity. The results of an initial study of the electrochemical behavior of pyrrothite before alteration suggest that its alteration involves the formation of 3 surface layers (in agreement with previous reports): (1) in immediate contact with pyrrhotite corresponding to a metal-deficient sulfide; (2) an intermediate layer corresponding to elemental S, and; (3) the most external layer, consisting of precipitates of Fe oxy-hydroxides, like goethite. The pyrrhotite reactivity seems to be controlled by the formation of oxidation product layers that coat and passivate the pyrrhotite surface, where the elemental S layer has most significance. The results confirm the advantage of incorporating cyclic voltammetry as an auxiliary method for acid rock drainage prediction, due to its demonstrated capacity to describe the factors that influence sulfide mineral reactivity which are not evaluated by other predictive techniques.     

Evaluation of the impact of pyrite oxidation on rock characteristics and environment by laboratory tests

Pyrite is a common and abundant sulfidic mineral subject to oxidation. The weathering characteristics of rock-bearing pyrite sometimes impose serious influences on the surrounding environment as the oxidation of pyrite (FeS₂) generates acid drainage that results in the acceleration of rock weathering and the discharge of heavy metals into the environment. Such an accelerated weathering of rocks can reduce its mechanical properties and therefore menace the stability of rock structures, such as excavated slopes and tunnels. The evolution of physical properties of rocks and the chemical composition of drainage were evaluated in this study by a weathering test using a double Soxhlet extractor for 1 month in a laboratory setting. Three groups of biotite gneiss classified according to their pyrite content were used for the Soxhlet extraction experiment (group A with less than 0.1 wt% of pyrite; group B with about 3.3 wt% of disseminated pyrite; group C with about 5.65 wt% of vein type pyrite). The massive groups A and B had limited weathering on the surface; however, group C with the pyrite vein experienced weathering on the surface as well as along the pyrite vein. The weathering type regulated by the occurrence of pyrite apparently controlled the mechanical properties of the rock samples and the chemistry of the drainage. Groups A and B showed no significant quick absorption ratio after the 1-month experiment; however, group C had about 10 % increase in value. The uniaxial compressive strength of the three groups decreased about 20, 10 and 45 % for groups A, B and C, respectively. The mechanical properties of the samples and the chemical compositions of the drainage indicate that the oxidation of pyrite contained in the samples accelerated weathering, resulting in deterioration of mechanical properties of the rocks, and could result in the discharge of heavy metals and acid into the environment with the drainage.     

Supergene processes on ore deposits—a source of heavy metals

The study of supergene processes (i.e., secondary processes running in ore deposits and driven by thermodynamic nonequilibrium between ore-and rock-forming minerals and natural waters, gasses, etc.) is important in order to understand the migration of heavy metals from ore into their adjacent surroundings. The contamination of the local environment can be characterized by the composition of pore waters. The Pb-Zn-Cu ore deposits of Zlaté Hory (Czech Republic) have been chosen for a detailed study of pore solutions. A simple model has been created to describe the evolution of supergene processes in the ore deposits. This model is based on the determination of chemical composition of pore solutions. The dilution of pore solutions of such mineral deposits results in acid mine drainage. Pore solutions can have, during specific stages of their evolution, relatively high concentrations of Cu (0.09 mol/kg), Zn (0.1 mol/kg), SO₄ (0.8 mol/kg) and an extremely low pH (1.38). The supergene alteration of pyrite is the most important process determining the character of pore water. This reaction causes significant acidification and is a leading source of acid mine drainage. The leached zone originates from the interaction of pyrite and limonite. Increased concentrations of heavy metals and sulfates occur in pore waters. The dynamic composition of pore waters within ore deposits undergoing the supergene process can be used to distinguish: (1) three main zoneslimonite, transition, and primary zone and (2) two areas—an area with the highest intensity of weathering processes and an area of weathering initiation. In these areas the rate of sulfide oxidation is higher as a result of low pH. From the study of these zones and areas we can further our knowledge of ore body, pore solution, acid mine drainage, and contamination of the local environment.     

煤矿酸性水中亚稳态矿物Schwertmannite的形成与转变

斯沃特曼矿是一种形成于煤矿酸性水环境中的铁的含水硫酸盐矿物,具有很高的比表面积和不稳定性,对煤矿酸性水中有害微量元素的吸附和迁移活性具有重要影响。运用扫描电镜(SEM/EDX)和粉末X射线衍射等手段,通过测定和对比,鉴别了中国的煤矿酸性矿排水渠中存在斯沃特曼矿物,在实验室中模拟酸性水环境对煤中非均质黄铁矿进行氧化反应试验,结果显示,反应产物中存在斯沃特曼矿物,并且认为随着反应时间的延长,斯沃特曼矿物逐渐向针铁矿转变。     

Investigation of pyrite oxidation and acid mine drainage characterization associated with Razi active coal mine and coal washing waste dumps in the Azad shahr–Ramian region,northeast Iran

Acid mine drainage (AMD) pollution is considered to be the most serious water pollution problem in mining areas. AMD containing iron sulfates and other components can affect the receiving water bodies. Pyrite oxidation and AMD generation can be considered as important processes that may take place in the wastes produced by coal mining and coal washing operations in the Golestan province (northeast Iran). The study area is characterized by appropriate atmospheric conditions that favor pyrite oxidation and the presence of a large amount of water bodies. This study attempts to consider pyrite oxidation and AMD generation in the Azad shahr–Ramian region. The impact of AMD on the quality of the surface water bodies was investigated by taking samples and analyzing them for hydro-geochemical parameters. Stiff and Piper diagrams were used to represent chemical analyses of water samples. The coal samples taken from different depths at four points on two different coal waste dumps were analyzed to find the fraction of pyrite that remained in the waste particles to investigate the pyrite oxidation process. A computational fluid dynamic package called PHOENICS was used to model pyrite oxidation process numerically. The results obtained from the geochemical analyses of water and coal samples and numerical simulation show pyrite oxidation and acid generation in the region. However, the presence of carbonate rocks raised the pH of the water samples. The drainages of the Razi mine may be recognized as natural alkaline mine drainages.     

黑色页岩水岩化学作用实验研究

水岩作用是黑色页岩化学风化的重要途径,并与岩体矿物组分、工程性质及地质环境有着密切的联系。利用自制的流通实验装置对取自三江县团结电站附近的寒武系清溪组黑色页岩与富含溶解氧去离子水的化学反应进行试验模拟研究,并利用离子分析仪、电感耦合等离子体质谱仪对反应后溶液离子浓度进行分析,使用扫描电子显微镜观察反应前后岩样微观特征,结合岩样渗透系数的变化监测,对岩样中黄铁矿氧化动力学速率以及受黄铁矿氧化影响形成的酸性环境下硅元素释放速率进行计算分析。结果表明,黄铁矿氧化行为使得岩体渗透率降低约70%,在黑色页岩自身矿物化学组分和岩石物理性质的共同影响下,所含黄铁矿氧化速率与纯黄铁矿颗粒的氧化速率非常接近,同时黄铁矿氧化形成的酸性溶液可溶蚀岩体中石英和伊利石,由于两者含量未能精确测定,因此所测得硅元素释放速率仅表示两者溶解的总反应速率。     

The effect of As, Co, and Ni impurities on pyrite oxidation kinetics: An electrochemical study of synthetic pyrite

Synthetic pyrite crystals doped with As, Co, or Ni, undoped pyrite, and natural arsenian pyrite from Leadville, Colorado were investigated with electrochemical techniques and solid-state measurements of semiconducting properties to determine the effect of impurity content on pyrite’s oxidation behavior. Potential step experiments, cyclic voltammetry, and AC voltammetry were performed in a standard three-electrode electrochemical cell setup. A pH 1.78 sulfuric acid solution containing 1 mM ferric iron, open to atmospheric oxygen, was chosen to approximate water affected by acid drainage. Van der Pauw/Hall effect measurements determined resistivity, carrier concentration and carrier mobility.The anodic dissolution of pyrite and the reduction of ferric iron half-reactions are taken as proxies for natural pyrite oxidation. Pyrite containing no impurities is least reactive. Pyrite with As is more reactive than pyrite with either Ni or Co despite lower dopant concentration. As, Co, and Ni impurities introduce bulk defect states at different energy levels within the band gap. Higher reactivity of impure pyrite suggests that introduced defect levels lead to higher density of occupied surface states at the solid-solution interface and increased metallic behavior. The current density generated from potential step experiments increased with increasing As concentration. The higher reactivity of As-doped pyrite may be related to p-type conductivity and corrosion by holes. The results of this study suggest that considering the impurity content of pyrite in mining waste may lead to more accurate risk assessment of acid producing potential.     

Electrochemical study of hydrothermal and sedimentary pyrite dissolution

The dissolution of pyrite is of interest in the formation of acid mine drainage and is a complex electrochemical process. Being able to measure the rate of dissolution of particular pyrite samples under particular conditions is important for describing and predicting rates of AMD generation. Electrochemical techniques offer the promise of performing such measurements rapidly and with small samples. The oxidation of pyrite and the reduction of Fe³⁺ ions and/or O₂ half reactions involved in the pyrite dissolution process were investigated by cyclic voltammetry and steady-state voltammetry using three pyrite materials formed in both sedimentary and hydrothermal environments. For each sample, two kinds of pyrite working electrodes (conventional constructed compact solid electrode, and carbon paste electrode constructed from fine-grained pyrite particles) were employed. Results indicated that for both the hydrothermal and sedimentary pyrite samples the oxidation and reduction half reactions involved in dissolution were governed by charge transfer processes, suggesting that hydrothermal and sedimentary pyrites obey the same dissolution mechanism despite their different formation mechanisms. In addition, the results showed that it is feasible to use a C paste electrode constructed from fine-grained or powdered pyrite to study the pyrite dissolution process electrochemically and to derive approximate rate expressions from the electrochemical data.     

从矿物粉晶表面反应性到矿物晶面反应性——以黄铁矿氧化行为的晶面差异性为例

地球系统中各种矿物相的物理化学反应大多是从矿物表面或界面开始的。要揭示矿物表面反应性的本质,就需要从控制其反应性的表面结构入手。由于实验条件的限制,绝大多数关于矿物表面物理化学性质的研究主要采用粉晶作为研究对象。尽管粉晶方法在研究诸如硅酸盐、碳酸盐溶解和沉淀结晶等过程中被普遍采用,但这种基于矿物粉晶的研究方法还是有一定的不足。因为形成粉晶的破碎研磨过程会导致晶体高能面的出现,高能面所具有的高活性可能会加速其反应过程,应用于地球化学反应的计算结果就可能高估了实际的地球化学反应速率。本研究以黄铁矿表面氧化反应的晶面差异性为例,从晶面结构制约反应性的角度出发,重新审视了黄铁矿氧化的相关问题,弥补了传统"粉晶研究"中对黄铁矿氧化速率和氧化机理认识的缺陷。黄铁矿宽范围的氧化速率实测值很可能是由不同晶面间较大的反应性差异导致;水在黄铁矿的氧化过程中同时扮演着传递电子的催化剂和反应物的角色,也是黄铁矿氧化反应速控步(rate-limiting step)的核心物质。这些认识首次明确了黄铁矿不同晶面反应性差异的重要性,并提示我们应将传统表面矿物学的研究推向更为精确的晶面矿物学水平。这一从晶面角度考察发生在矿物表面的地球化学反应的研究方法可为构建更为精确的地球化学模型提供理论基础。     

The effect of adsorbed lipid on pyrite oxidation under biotic conditions

The chemolithoautotrophic bacterium, Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans, commonly occurs in acid mine drainage (AMD) environments where it is responsible for catalyzing the oxidation of pyrite and concomitant development of acidic conditions. This investigation reports on the growth of this bacterial species on the pyrite surface and in the aqueous phase at a pH close to 2 as well as the role of adsorbed lipid in preventing pyrite dissolution. Both acid washed pyrite and acid-washed pyrite coated with lipids were used as substrates in the studies. The choice of lipid, 1,2-bis(10,12-tricosadiynoyl)-sn-Glycero-3-Phosphocholine lipid (23:2 Diyne PC), a phosphocholine lipid, was based on earlier work that showed that this lipid inhibits the abiotic oxidation rate of pyrite. Atomic force microscopy showed that under the experimental conditions used in this study, the lipid formed ~4–20 nm layers on the mineral surface. Surface-bound lipid greatly suppresses the oxidation process catalyzed by A. ferrooxidans. This suppression continued for the duration of the experiments (25 days maximum). Analysis of the bacterial population on the pyrite surface and in solution over the course of the experiments suggested that the pyrite oxidation was dependent in large part on the fraction of bacteria bound to the pyrite surface.     

尾矿中硫化物风化氧化模拟实验研究

为防治矿山尾矿造成环境污染，对方铅矿，闪锌矿，磁黄铁矿、黄铜矿，黄铁矿进行了风化氧化实验研究，结果显示，硫化物的氧化速率顺序为：方铅矿＞闪锌矿＞磁黄铁矿＞黄铜矿＞黄铁矿，侵蚀液pH值越低，硫化物氧化速率越大，有机物存在对硫化物氧化起缓冲和抑制作用。     

Arsenic speciation in pyrite and secondary weathering phases,Mother Lode Gold District,Tuolumne County,California

Arsenian pyrite, formed during Cretaceous gold mineralization, is the primary source of As along the Melones fault zone in the southern Mother Lode Gold District of California. Mine tailings and associated weathering products from partially submerged inactive gold mines at Don Pedro Reservoir, on the Tuolumne River, contain ∼20–1300 ppm As. The highest concentrations are in weathering crusts from the Clio mine and nearby outcrops which contain goethite or jarosite. As is concentrated up to 2150 ppm in the fine-grained (<63 μm) fraction of these Fe-rich weathering products.Individual pyrite grains in albite-chlorite schists of the Clio mine tailings contain an average of 1.2 wt.% As. Pyrite grains are coarsely zoned, with local As concentrations ranging from ∼0 to 5 wt.%. Electron microprobe, transmission electron microscope, and extended X-ray absorption fine-structure spectroscopy (EXAFS) analyses indicate that As substitutes for S in pyrite and is not present as inclusions of arsenopyrite or other As-bearing phases. Comparison with simulated EXAFS spectra demonstrates that As atoms are locally clustered in the pyrite lattice and that the unit cell of arsenian pyrite is expanded by ∼2.6% relative to pure pyrite. During weathering, clustered substitution of As into pyrite may be responsible for accelerating oxidation, hydrolysis, and dissolution of arsenian pyrite relative to pure pyrite in weathered tailings. Arsenic K-edge EXAFS analysis of the fine-grained Fe-rich weathering products are consistent with corner-sharing between As(V) tetrahedra and Fe(III)-octahedra. Determinations of nearest-neighbor distances and atomic identities, generated from least-squares fitting algorithms to spectral data, indicate that arsenate tetrahedra are sorbed on goethite mineral surfaces but substitute for SO₄ in jarosite. Erosional transport of As-bearing goethite and jarosite to Don Pedro Reservoir increases the potential for As mobility and bioavailability by desorption or dissolution. Both the substrate minerals and dissolved As species are expected to respond to seasonal changes in lake chemistry caused by thermal stratification and turnover within the monomictic Don Pedro Reservoir. Arsenic is predicted to be most bioavailable and toxic in the reservoir’s summer hypolimnion.     

Hydrogeologic and environmental impact of amjhore pyrite mines,India

Drainage from active and inactive pyrite mines has produced chemical and physical pollution of both ground- and surface water in Amjhore region. In the present case, chemical pollution is caused by exposing pyrite minerals to oxidation or leaching, resulting in undesirable concentrations of dissolved materials. Pyrite mining suddenly exposed large quantities of sulfides to direct contact with oxygen, and oxidation proceeds rapidly, resulting in acidity and release of metal (Fe) and sulfates to the water system, eventually resulting in water pollution in the region. The magnitude and impact of the problem is just being recognized and, as the present and the future projected demand for clean water is of top priority, the present studies were undertaken.Mine drainage includes water flowing from the surface and underground mines and runoff or seepage from the pyrite mines. This article describes the various hydrologic factors that control acid water formation and its transport. The mine drainage is obviously a continuing source of pollution and, therefore, remedial measures mainly consisting of a double-stage limestone-lime treatment technique have been suggested. The present results will be used to develop an alternative and more effective abatement technology to mitigate acid production at the source, namely, the technique of revegetation of the soil cover applied to the waste mine dump material.Water quality change is discussed in detail, with emphasis on acidity formed from exposed pyrite material and on increase in dissolved solids. Preventive and treatment measures are recommended.     

Cyclic voltammetry applied to evaluate reactivity in sulfide mining residues

Oxidation of sulfide present in mining residues can generate contaminating acid effluent known as acid rock drainage. Prediction and control of acid rock drainage are critically important to the mining industry because of the environmental impact resulting from the sulfide oxidation. Due to its particular reaction kinetics, once acid drainage has begun, it is very difficult to control without a substantial economic investment. For this reason, efficient prediction and prevention programs, which monitor mining waste reactivity, are required to limit the oxidation of sulfide-bearing residues before damage to the environment occurs. In this work, the authors evaluated mining waste reactivity under oxidizing conditions as a function of its voltammetric behavior before and during alteration under simulated natural conditions produced in the laboratory. This method is supported by conventional mineralogical characterization of the mineral samples and chemical quality of the effluents produced during the simulated alteration process kinetics.     

Kinetic modelling of geochemical processes at the Aitik mining waste rock site in northern Sweden

A steady-state geochemical model has been developed to study water-rock interactions controlling metal release from waste rock heaps at the Aitik Cu mine in northern Sweden. The Cu release in drainage waters from the site is of environmental concern. The waste rock heaps are treated as single completely mixed flow-through reactors. The geochemical model includes kinetices of sulphide and primary silicate mineral weathering, heterogeneous equilibrium with secondary mineral phases and speciation equilibrium. Field monitoring of drainage water composition provides a basis for evaluation of model performance.The relative rate of oxidative weathering of sulphides and dissolution of primary silicate minerals, using published kinetic data, are consistent with net proton and base cation fluxes at the site. The overall rate of Fe²⁺ oxidation within the heap is three orders of magnitude faster than that which could be explained by surface-catalysed reaction kinetics. This suggests significant activity of iron-oxidizing bacteria. The absolute weathering rates of sulphides and silicate minerals, normalized to a measured BET surface area, are approximately two orders of magnitude lower at field scale than published rates from laboratory experiments. Because of the relative absence of carbonate minerals, the weathering of biotite and plagioclase feldspar are important sources of alkalinity.     

骨炭钝化含黄铁矿多重金属尾矿的研究

钝化处理被广泛应用于含重金属尾矿的处理,可以从源头上防止酸矿废水(AMD)的产生,寻找一种价廉易得且对环境危害小的钝化剂十分必要。本文主要研究在骨炭作用下,用pH值为4的双氧水对黄铁矿进行氧化,探讨骨炭对黄铁矿氧化释放重金属的钝化作用。实验结果表明,添加不同含量的骨炭(分别为0.5、2.5和5 g)能将溶液的pH值分别提高到8.93、10.01和10.42,表明骨炭具有较强的中和能力,同时黄铁矿氧化释放的Pb、Zn和Cd等重金属离子浓度明显地降低。但当骨炭含量超过2.5 g时,对As有促进释放的趋势。红外光谱分析显示钝化后黄铁矿样品位于420、563、603、1 044、1 091 cm~(-1)处的特征峰主要来自PO_4~(3-)的振动,XRD进一步揭示了黄铁矿表面主要含磷次生矿物是磷铁矿和羟磷铁铅石,这些次生矿物对重金属钝化起着重要作用。因此,骨炭有望作为钝化含多重金属尾矿的钝化剂。     

Immobilization of copper under an acid leach of colloidal pyrite waste rocks by a fixed-bed column

Colloidal pyrite waste rocks (CPWR) which are mainly composed of colloidal pyrite and siderite widely deposit in sulfide mines in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River belt, China, especially in Tongling City, Anhui Province, China. In this paper, a fixed-bed column was used to investigate the weathering and oxidation of CPWR and its role in immobilizing low-concentration Cu (10 mg L^?1) under weakly acidic leach (pH = 5.0). The experimental results indicated that the breakthrough capacity was around 14.0 mg Cu g^?1 CPWR when Cu²⁺ breakthrough concentration was 0.5 mg L^?1. Sequential extraction of Cu and dithionite–citrate–bicarbonate extraction of free iron in the used CPWR after the column breakthrough indicated that Cu removal by CPWR consisted of the following processes: oxidation of pyrite and dissolution of siderite in CPWR, ferrous oxidation, and adsorption of Cu on ferric (hydr)oxides. This study shows the potential application of CPWR as an effective sorbent for the removal of low-concentration Cu from acid mine drainage.     

An attempt to use LA-ICP-SMS to quantify enrichment of trace elements on pyrite surfaces in oxidizing mine tailings

Metals released from oxidation and weathering of sulphide minerals in mine tailings are to a high degree retained at deeper levels within the tailings themselves. To be able to predict what could happen in the future with these secondarily retained metals, it is important to understand the retention mechanisms. In this study an attempt to use laser ablation high-resolution ICP-MS (LA-ICP-SMS) to quantify enrichment of trace elements on pyrite surfaces in mine tailings was performed. Pyrite grains were collected from a profile through the pyrite-rich tailings at the Kristineberg mine in northern Sweden. At each spot hit by the laser, the surface layer was analyzed in the first shot, and a second shot on the same spot gave the chemical composition of the pyrite immediately below. The crater diameter for a laser shot was known, and by estimating the crater depth and total pyrite surface, the total enrichment on pyrite grains was calculated. Results are presented for As, Cd, Co, Cu, Ni and Zn. The results clearly show that there was an enrichment of As, Cd, Cu and Zn on the pyrite surfaces below the oxidation front in the tailings, but not of Co and Ni. Arsenic was also enriched on the pyrite grains that survived in the oxidized zone. Copper has been enriched on pyrite surfaces in unoxidized tailings in the largest amount, followed by Zn and As. However, only 1.4 to 3.1% of the Cd and Zn released by sulphide oxidation in the oxidized zone have been enriched on the pyrite surfaces in the unoxidized tailings, but for As and Cu corresponding figures are about 64 and 43%, respectively. There were many uncertainties in these calculations, and the results shall not be taken too literally but allowed the conclusion that enrichment on pyrite surfaces is an important process for retention of As and Cu below the oxidation front in pyrite rich tailings. Laser ablation is not a surface analysis technique, but more of a thin layer method, and gives no information on the type of processes resulting in enrichment on the pyrite surfaces. Although only pyrite grains that appeared to be fresh and without surface coatings were used in this study, the possibility that a thin layer of Fe-hydroxides occurred must be considered. Both adsorption to the pyrite directly or to Fe-oxyhydroxides may explain the enrichment of As, Cd, Cu and Zn on the pyrite surfaces, and, in the case of Cu, also the replacement of Fe(II) by Cu(II) in pyrite.     

Acid production from sulfide minerals using hydrogen peroxide weathering

Sulfide mineral weathering is a major source of acid generation in mining environments. Oxidation and hydrolysis reactions in soil and geologic material under earth surface conditions causes weathering of reduced sulfide minerals resulting in liberation of weathering products including acid. Pyrite and marcasite are minerals common in mine environments that cause acid generation. Many other sulfide minerals are present in mining environments which may or may not form acid upon weathering. Characterization of complex mineral assemblages containing S compounds is therefore critically important to pre-mine planning and postmine waste characterization. Despite the importance of mineral weathering behavior, little is known about the acid generation characteristics of common sulfide and sulfate minerals. To assess the response of common sulfide and sulfate minerals to oxidizing conditions, 13 minerals were subjected to treatment with 10% H₂O₂. The resulting leachate was analyzed for pH, electrical conductivity, S and titratable acidity. The sulfide minerals arsenopyrite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, marcasite and sphalerite demonstrated significantly elevated levels of titratable acidity and are acid generating in contrast to galena, chalcocite and all the sulfates. The sulfate minerals barite, anhydrite, gypsum, anglesite and jarosite were included in experimentation and were found not to form acid under strongly oxidizing conditions. Remediation strategies for disturbed lands containing reduced S minerals must therefore consider not only the total quantity of sulfide minerals present, but the specific mineralogy of the S compounds.     

Hydrogeochemistry and microbiology of mine drainage: An update

The extraction of mineral resources requires access through underground workings, or open pit operations, or through drillholes for solution mining. Additionally, mineral processing can generate large quantities of waste, including mill tailings, waste rock and refinery wastes, heap leach pads, and slag. Thus, through mining and mineral processing activities, large surface areas of sulfide minerals can be exposed to oxygen, water, and microbes, resulting in accelerated oxidation of sulfide and other minerals and the potential for the generation of low-quality drainage. The oxidation of sulfide minerals in mine wastes is accelerated by microbial catalysis of the oxidation of aqueous ferrous iron and sulfide. These reactions, particularly when combined with evaporation, can lead to extremely acidic drainage and very high concentrations of dissolved constituents. Although acid mine drainage is the most prevalent and damaging environmental concern associated with mining activities, generation of saline, basic and neutral drainage containing elevated concentrations of dissolved metals, non-metals, and metalloids has recently been recognized as a potential environmental concern. Acid neutralization reactions through the dissolution of carbonate, hydroxide, and silicate minerals and formation of secondary aluminum and ferric hydroxide phases can moderate the effects of acid generation and enhance the formation of secondary hydrated iron and aluminum minerals which may lessen the concentration of dissolved metals. Numerical models provide powerful tools for assessing impacts of these reactions on water quality.