Exploration of geothermal structure in Puga geothermal field, Ladakh Himalayas, India by magnetotelluric studies

To understand the crustal electric structure of the Puga geothermal field located in the Ladakh Himalayas, wide band (1000 Hz–0.001 Hz) magnetotelluric (MT) study have been carried out in the Puga area. Thirty-five MT sites were occupied with site spacing varying from 0.4 to 1 km. The measurements were carried out along three profiles oriented in east–west direction. After the preliminary analysis, the MT data were subjected to decomposition techniques. The one-dimensional inversion of the effective impedance data and the two-dimensional inversion of the TE (transverse electric) and TM (transverse magnetic) data confirm the presence of low resistive (5–25 Ω m) near surface region of 200–300 m thick in the anomalous geothermal part of the area related to the shallow geothermal reservoir. Additionally, the present study delineated an anomalous conductive zone (resistivity less than 10 Ω m) at a depth of about 2 km which is possibly related to the geothermal source in the area. A highly resistive basement layer separates the surface low resistive region and anomalous conductive part. The estimated minimum temperature at the top of conductive part is about 250 °C. The significance of the deeper conductive zone and its relation to the geothermal anomaly in the area is discussed.     

内蒙古赤峰市热水镇地热田地球物理调查

热水镇热构造背景具有略厚的地壳,稍低的大地热流和壳内相对的低温的特征.本区不具备浅部形成高温热源的火山地质背景.从西、北部山区渗透的天水,在深部被晚期侵入的花岗岩和玄武岩以热传导的形式加热,再沿发育的的断裂、裂隙上升到浅部形成地热田浅层热水储集层.地热田具有向北西-南东和南西-东北东方向伸展的趋势.     

Geophysical exploration for geothermal low enthalpy resources in Lipari Island, Italy

Integrated geophysical surveys were performed in two sites, Fossa di Fuardo and Terme di San Calogero in Lipari Island, Southern Italy with the intent of the exploration of low-enthalpy geothermal fluids. Both sites show strong geochemical and geologic evidences of hydrothermal activity. The geophysical methods consist of two microgravimetric surveys, two 2D geoelectric profiles, a seismic reflection profile and a five seismic refraction profiles. The seismic methods allowed us to locate the main subsurface seismic discontinuities and to evaluate their geometrical relationships. The gravity field was used to constraint the seismic discontinuities, while the electric prospecting let discriminate more conductive areas, which could correspond to an increase in thermal fluid circulation in the investigated sites.The results obtained by the different geophysical methods are in good agreement and permit the definition of a reliable geo-structural model of the subsurface setting of the two investigated areas. A low-enthalpy geothermal reservoir constituted by a permeable pyroclastic and lava sequence underlying two shallow impermeable formations was found at Fossa del Fuardo. The reservoir is intersected by some sub-vertical faults/fractures that probably play an important role in convoying the thermal water up to the surface. At the other site, Terme di S. Calogero, the geophysical surveys showed that an intense circulation of fluids affects the subsurface of the area. This circulation concentrates along a ENE-trending fault located at a little distance from the thermal resort. The hot fluids may upraise along the fault if the width of the ascent area is smaller than 20 m.     

Geophysical investigations of the Platanares geothermal site, Honduras, Central America

Geophysical studies were carried out in Platanares in Western Honduras, as part of an investigation of the geothermal resource potential of Honduras by Los Alamos National Laboratory in cooperation with the Honduran government and the U.S. Geological Survey. Geological and geochemical studies later followed by exploratory bore-holes indicate this area of rugged topography has the best geothermal potential in Honduras. In order to better understand the geology of the area, gravity, audiomagnetotelluric and telluric surveys were carried out. The site is in a graben of Tertiary volcanics and Cretaceous red beds, with numerous hot springs along faults in the center of the graben. Gravity mapped the thickness of low-density tuffs and the position of associated normal faults. It also indicated the presence of persuasive, shallow, highly silicified, high-density tuffs and gravels. The electrical surveys mapped shallow, high-resistivity silicified zones and faults as low-resistivity zones. The red beds below the tuffs are considered to contain the geothermal reservoir, but their maximum thickness could not be determined by these surveys due to the lack of density contrast and the high surface electrical conductivities. Three geologic cross-sections constructed by others have been re-evaluated using gravity modeling and analysis of eletrical anomalies, showing general agreement but in detail significant differences.     

Geophysical Characterization of the Salna Sinking Zone, Garhwal Himalaya, India

Infrastructure and communication facilities are repeatedly affected by ground deformation in Gharwal Himalaya, India; for effective remediation measures, a thorough understanding of the real reasons for these movements is needed. In this regard, we undertook an integrated geophysical and geotechnical study of the Salna sinking zone close to the Main Central Thrust in Garhwal Himalaya. Our geophysical data include eight combined electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) and induced polarization imaging (IPI) profiles spanning 144–600 m, with 3–10 m electrode separation in the Wenner–Schlumberger configuration, and five micro-gravity profiles with 10–30 m station spacing covering the study region. The ERT sections clearly outline the heterogeneity in the subsurface lithology. Further, the ERT, IPI, and shaliness (shaleyness) sections infer the absence of clayey horizons and slip surfaces at depth. However, the Bouguer gravity analysis has revealed the existence of several faults in the subsurface, much beyond the reach of the majority of ERT sections. These inferred vertical to subvertical faults run parallel to the existing major lineaments and tectonic elements of the study region. The crisscross network of inferred faults has divided the entire study region into several blocks in the subsurface. Our studies stress that the sinking of the Salna village area is presently taking place along these inferred vertical to subvertical faults. The Chamoli earthquake in March 1999 probably triggered seismically induced ground movements in this region. The absence of few gravity-inferred faults in shallow ERT sections may hint at blind faults, which could serve as future source(s) for geohazards in the study region. Soil samples at two sites of study region were studied in a geotechnical laboratory. These, along with stability studies along four slope sections, have indicated the critical state of the study region. Thus, our integrated studies emphasize the crucial role of micro-gravity in finding fine subsurface structure at deeper depth level; supported by ERT and IPI at shallow depth intervals, they can satisfactorily explain the Salna sinking zone close to Lesser Himalaya. The geotechnical studies also lend support to these findings. These integrated studies have yielded a better understanding of the mass-wasting mechanism for the study region.     

Hydrogeochemistry of the Simav geothermal field, western Anatolia, Turkey

Thermal waters hosted by Menderes metamorphic rocks emerge along fault lineaments in the Simav geothermal area. Thermal springs and drilled wells are located in the Eynal, Çitgöl and Na a locations, which are part of the Simav geothermal field. Studies were carried out to obtain the main chemical and physical characteristics of thermal waters. These waters are used for heating of residences and greenhouses and for balneological purposes. Bottom temperatures of the drilled wells reach 163°C with total dissolved solids around 2225 mg/kg. Surface temperatures of thermal springs vary between 51°C and 90°C. All the thermal waters belong to Na–HCO₃–SO₄ facies. The cold groundwaters are Ca–Mg–HCO₃ type. Dissolution of host rock and ion-exchange reactions in the reservoir of the geothermal system shift the Ca–Mg–HCO₃ type cold groundwaters to the Na–HCO₃–SO₄ type thermal waters. Thermal waters are oversaturated at discharge temperatures for aragonite, calcite, quartz, chalcedony, magnesite and dolomite minerals giving rise to a carbonate-rich scale. Gypsum and anhydrite minerals are undersaturated with all of the thermal waters. Boiling during ascent of the thermal fluids produces steam and liquid waters resulting in an increase of the concentrations of the constituents in discharge waters. Steam fraction, y, of the thermal waters of which temperatures are above 100°C is between 0.075 and 0.119. Reservoir pH is much lower than pH measured in the liquid phase separated at atmospheric conditions, since the latter experienced heavy loss of acid gases, mainly CO₂. Assessment of the various empirical chemical geothermometers and geochemical modelling suggest that reservoir temperatures vary between 175°C and 200°C.     

Electric field data in inductive source electromagnetic surveys

Measurement of the electric field data due to an inductive loop source in a controlled source electromagnetic survey is not common, because electric field data, usually involving grounded electrodes, are expensive to acquire and difficult to interpret. With the recently developed capability of versatile three‐dimensional inversion, we revisit the idea of measuring electric field in a large ground loop survey for mineral exploration. The three‐dimensional modelling and inversion approach helps us quantitatively understand the detectability and recoverability of the proposed survey configuration. Our detectability study using forward modelling shows that the relative anomaly (percentage difference) in electric field does not decay with a lower induction number, but the conventional magnetic field data (dB/dt) does. Our recoverability study examines how much and what kind of information can be extracted from electric field data for the reconstruction of a three‐dimensional model. Synthetic inversions show the following observations. (i) Electric field data are good at locating lateral discontinuity, whereas dB/dt has better depth resolution. (ii) Electric field is less sensitive to the background conductivity and, thus, is prone to misinterpretation because of a bad initial model in inversion. We recommend warm‐starting the electric field inversion with an initial model from a separate dB/dt inversion. (iii) Electric field data may be severely contaminated by near‐surface heterogeneity, but an inversion can recover the deep target concealed by the geologic noise. (iv) Even one line of single‐component electric field data can greatly improve the horizontal resolution in a dB/dt inversion. Finally, we investigate a field dataset of both electric field and dB/dt measurements at a uranium deposit. The field example confirms that the electric field and magnetic field data contain independent information that is crucial in the accurate recovery of subsurface conductivity. Our synthetic and field examples demonstrate the benefit of acquiring electric field data along with magnetic field data in an inductive source survey.     

Using numerical modeling for assessing the recoverable reserves of a geothermal steam field: The Pauzhetka geothermal field

A conceptual hydrogeological model has been created and a corresponding 3D numerical, thermal hydrodynamic model developed for the Pauzhetka geothermal field; the model covers an area of 13.6 km² and includes three layers: a basement with conduits that supply the heat carrier, a hydrothermal reservoir, and an upper aquifer with percolation “windows.” Inversion is handled by the iTOUGH2 program; the model was calibrated using the 1960-2006 data on the natural state and extraction at 13675 calibration points. The inversion simulation has made it possible to identify and evaluate the key parameters of the model and to identify the sources that generate the recoverable reserves. Forecasting modeling for the period from 2007 to 2032 shows a sustainable extraction of 29 kg/s steam, provided five additional wells have been put into operation, which will provide 6.8 MWs of production by the geothermal power plant. The results of forecasting modeling, in combination with observations on long-term operation, allow an evaluation of the recoverable reserves in the industrial categories.     

海洋地球物理在国家安全领域的应用

要建设海洋强国,首先要“知海、懂海”.只有认识海洋,才能从战略上部署好海洋,才能因势利导,走向海洋,开发海洋.海洋地球物理有着极为重要的作用,特别是海防和海洋地质灾害预警这些关系到国家安全的领域更是意义重大.通过对海洋地球物理环境的“全局、精细、实时”监控,及早发现,及时预警,达到维护国家安全的目的.和平时期,唤醒全民...     

Geophysical surveys for identifying saline groundwater in the semi‐arid region of the central Altiplano,Bolivia

In the central part of the Bolivian Altiplano, the shallow groundwater presents electrical conductivities ranging from 0·1 to 20 mS/cm. In order to study the origin of this salinity pattern, a good knowledge is required of the geometry of the aquifer at depth. In this study, geophysics has been used to complement the sparse data available from drill holes. One hundred time‐domain electromagnetic (TDEM) soundings were carried out over an area of 1750 km². About 20 geological logs were available close to some of the TDEM soundings. Three intermediate results were obtained from the combined data: (i) the relationship between the electrical conductivity of the groundwater and the formation resistivity, (ii) geoelectrical cross‐sections and (iii) geoelectrical maps at various depths. The limited data set shows a relationship between resistivity and the nature of the rock. From the cross‐sections, a conductive substratum with a resistivity of less than 1 Ω·m was identified at most of the sites at depths ranging from 50 to 350 m. This substratum could be a clay‐rich formation containing brines. Using derived relationships, maps of the nature of the formation (sandy, intermediate and clayey sediments) were established at depths of 10 and 50 m. Discrimination between sand and clays was impossible where groundwater conductivity is high (>3 mS/cm). In the central part of the area, where the groundwater conductivity is low, sandy sediments are likely to be present from the surface to a depth of more than 200 m. Clayey sediments are more likely to be present in the south‐east and probably constitute a hydraulic barrier to groundwater flow. In conclusion, the study demonstrates the efficiency of the TDEM sounding method to map conductive zones. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Three-dimensional numerical simulation of geothermal field in space-wavenumber domain

Large-scale,fine,and efficient numerical simulation of a geothermal field plays an important role in geothermal energy development.Confronted with the problem o...     

Gases and water isotopes in a geochemical section across the Larderello,Italy, geothermal field

Steam samples from six wells (Colombaia, Pineta, Larderello 57, Larderello 155, Gabbro 6, and Gabbro 1) in a south to north section across the Larderello geothermal field have been analyzed for inorganic and hydrocarbon gases and for oxygen-18 and deuterium of steam. The wells generally decrease in depth and increase in age toward the south. The steam samples are generally characterized by

1. Total gas contents increasing south to north from 0.003 to 0.05 mole fraction;
2. Constant CO₂ (95±2 percent); near constant H₂S (1.6±0.8), N₂ (1.2±0.8), H₂ (2±1), CH₄ (1.2±1), and no O₂ in the dry gas;
3. Presence of numerous, straight chain and branched C₂ to C₆ hydrocarbons plus benzene in amounts independent of CH₄ contents with highest concentrations in the deeper wells;
4. Oxygen-18 contents of steam increasing south to north from ?5.0‰ to ?0.4‰ with little change in deuterium (?42±2‰).

These observations are interpreted as showing:

1. Decreasing gas contents with amount of production because the proportion of steam boiled from liquid water increases with production;
2. Synthesis of CH₄ from H₂ and CO₂ with CO₂ and H₂ produced by thermal metamorphism and rock-water reactions;
3. Extraction of C₂ to C₆ hydrocarbons from rock organic matter;
4. Either oxygen isotope exchange followed by distillation of steam from the north toward the south (2 plates at ～220°C) or mixture of deeper more-exchange waters from the north with shallow, less-exchanged recharging waters from the south.

     

沉积速率对渤中坳陷大地热流的影响

盆地内快速剧烈的构造作用可导致热异常,在利用盆地热历史揭示深部动力学过程时,需消除热异常的影响. 本文根据瞬时热传导原理,校正了渤海湾盆地渤中坳陷低热异常,准确地约束了盆地深部动力学状态. 对渤中坳陷内3口典型井进行热流校正结果表明,渤中坳陷古近纪以来快速沉积导致其现今（~60.9 mW·m-2）未达到热平衡（低热异常）. 校正后的热流值平均约为67.4 mW·m-2,比现今高5~10 mW·m-2. 利用校正后的热流值计算得到的渤中坳陷的“热”岩石圈的平均厚度约为70 km,比修正前的厚度（82~100 km）减少了13~28 km.     

庐山星子温泉及其地热田的基本特征

庐山星子温泉,位于庐山南麓的星子县温泉村,泉水水温最高达72℃。热矿水类型为氟水、硅水、硫化氢水和氡水,适宜休闲、旅游、度假、理疗开发利用。在温泉出露处以西约1km南山公路的南侧,钻孔揭露见地热水,水温63℃。两地地热水的特征有其相似性,其形成与分布都受控于EW、NNE、NWW向断裂,但二者又有各自相对独立的热储结构。     

A field study of estuarine pollution in Madras,India

A field study has been made of the quality of water in three estuaries in Madras, India, receiving a variety of human and industrial wastes. Among the three estuaries, the Buckingham canal is grossly polluted with no surface flow. The Cooum estuary, though grossly polluted, because of the flow and flushing into the sea may be recovered if precautions are taken. The Ennore estuary, with a large volume of water flowing, has a peculiar problem at the mouth due to continuous formation of a sand bar due to long-shore currents. This sand bar prevents the flushing of the estuarine water. As a result, the pollutants discharged either in the estuary or in the sea accumulate at the mouth. This pollution, together with impaired self-purification of the estuary, resulted in a decrease in fish production.     

西藏羊八井地热田SOTEM探测及热储结构分析

西藏羊八井地热田是世界上著名的高温地热田, 历经四十多年的开发利用, 浅部地热资源日趋萎缩, 亟需开发深部高温地热资源来维持地热发电或新增装机容量.深刻了解断裂分布特征、地热流体的升流通道, 对于开发深部高温地热资源具有十分重要的意义.我们在羊八井地热田实施了6条电性源短偏移距瞬变电磁法(SOTEM)探测剖面, 通过反演获得了2 km深度范围内地层的电性结构.结合现有的构造地质、地球物理、地球化学、钻孔测温等资料, 取得了如下新认识: (1)确认F14断裂是地热流体从地热田北区向南区运移的主通道; (2)深部地热流体的上升通道出现在北区硫磺沟, 中尼公路附近下伏渗透性较差的基岩阻挡着地热流体在深处从北区向南区的侧向流动; (3)南区深处存在一个富水区, 汇聚着来自唐山的大气降水和冰雪融水, 与正在开采的浅层热储水力联系较弱; (4)在南区实施尾水回灌, 难以实现维持热储压力、延长地热田开采寿命的目的.