A Damage Model of Acoustic Emission in Rock and Its Initial Application in Seismological Research

The model of the relationship of AE parameter,damage variable and strain is derived by applying the damage theory and micro-element statistical strength theory.The relation between AE characteristics during rock failure and machine stiffness is analyzed under uniaxial compression with the above model.Based on the above analysis,the internal connection among AE activity law and seisraogenic process and earthquake activity is discussed.     

What Does Control Earthquake Ruptures and Dynamic Faulting? A Review of Different Competing Mechanisms

The fault weakening occurring during an earthquake and the temporal evolution of the traction on a seismogenic fault depend on several physical mechanisms, potentially concurrent and interacting. Recent laboratory experiments and geological field observations of natural faults revealed the presence, and sometime the coexistence, of thermally activated processes (such as thermal pressurization of pore fluids, melting of gouge and rocks, material property changes, thermally-induced chemical environment evolution), elasto-dynamic lubrication, porosity and permeability evolution, gouge fragmentation and wear, etc. In this paper, by reviewing in a unifying sketch all possible chemico–physical mechanisms that can affect the traction evolution, we suggest how they can be incorporated in a realistic fault governing equation. We will also show that simplified theoretical models that idealistically neglect these phenomena appear to be inadequate to describe as realistically as possible the details of breakdown process (i.e., the stress release) and the consequent high frequency seismic wave radiation. Quantitative estimates show that in most cases the incorporation of such nonlinear phenomena has significant, often dramatic, effects on the fault weakening and on the dynamic rupture propagation. The range of variability of the value of some parameters, the uncertainties in the relative weight of the various competing mechanisms, and the difference in their characteristic length and time scales sometime indicate that the formulation of a realistic governing law still requires joint efforts from theoretical models, laboratory experiments and field observations.     

A Genetic Programming–Based Model for Colloid Retention in Fractures

Understanding the behavior of colloids in groundwater is critical as some are pathogenic while others may facilitate or inhibit the transport of dissolved contaminants. Colloid behavior in saturated fractured aquifers is governed by the physical and chemical properties of the groundwater-particle-fracture system. The interaction between these properties is nonlinear, and there is a need for a mathematical model describing the relationship between them to advance the mechanistic understanding of colloid transport in fractures and facilitate modeling in fractured environments. This paper coupled genetic programming and linear regression within a multigene genetic programming framework to develop a robust mathematical model describing the relationship between colloid retention in fractures and the physical and chemical parameters that describe the system. The data employed for model development and validation were collected from a series of 75 laboratory-scale colloid tracer experiments conducted under a range of conditions in three laboratory-induced discrete dolomite fractures and their epoxy replicas. The model sufficiently reproduced the observed data with coefficients of determination (R²) of 0.92 and 0.80 for model development and validation, respectively. A cross-validation demonstrated the model generality to 86% of the observed data. A variance-based global sensitivity analysis confirmed that attachment is the primary retention mechanism in the systems employed in this work. The model developed in this study provides a tool describing colloid retention in factures, which furthers the understanding of groundwater-particle-fracture system conditions contributing to the retention of colloids and can aid in the design of groundwater remediation strategies and development of groundwater management plans.     

Seismic Rheological Model and Reflection Coefficients of the Brittle–Ductile Transition

It is well established that the upper—cooler—part of the crust is brittle, while deeper zones present ductile behaviour. In some cases, this brittle–ductile transition is a single seismic reflector with an associated reflection coefficient. We first develop a stress–strain relation including the effects of crust anisotropy, seismic attenuation and ductility in which deformation takes place by shear plastic flow. Viscoelastic anisotropy is based on the eigenstrain model and the Zener and Burgers mechanical models are used to model the effects of seismic attenuation, velocity dispersion, and steady-state creep flow, respectively. The stiffness components of the brittle and ductile media depend on stress and temperature through the shear viscosity, which is obtained by the Arrhenius equation and the octahedral stress criterion. The P- and S-wave velocities decrease as depth and temperature increase due to the geothermal gradient, an effect which is more pronounced for shear waves. We then obtain the reflection and transmission coefficients of a single brittle–ductile interface and of a ductile thin layer. The PP scattering coefficient has a Brewster angle (a sign change) in both cases, and there is substantial PS conversion at intermediate angles. The PP coefficient is sensitive to the layer thickness, unlike the SS coefficient. Thick layers have a well-defined Brewster angle and show higher reflection amplitudes. Finally, we compute synthetic seismograms in a homogeneous medium as a function of temperature.     

Theoretical Mechanism and Application of Sphere–Cylinder Model in NMR for Oil–Water Porous Media

NMR is a unique logging tool that measures porosity, permeability, fluid components and wettability. It also shows different responses from rocks due to different pore-sizes in reservoirs; this gives opportunities to carry out a further study for pore structures and pore sharps in complicated reservoirs. The theoretical mechanism in NMR used for pore structure study currently is based on the Brownstein and Tarr theory (Phys Rev 19:2446–2453, 1979), but it shows that the pore structures are not sensitive to the connectivity of pores. In order to overcome this, we are proposing a theoretical approach called the Sphere–Cylinder Model to conduct NMR relaxation theories. In addition, a procedure for different pores has been discussed for porous media that is saturated by an oil–water phase. Consequently, considerations for the NMR relaxations for the water and oil phase have been taken into account in our model. The Sphere–Cylinder model has been used based on an NMR log in one of the gas fields in southwest China and shows satisfactory results.     

A κ Model for Mainland France

An important parameter for the characterization of strong ground motion at high-frequencies (>1 Hz) is kappa, κ, which models a linear decay of the acceleration spectrum, a(f), in log-linear space (i.e. a(f) = A ₀ exp(? π κ f) for f > f _E where f is frequency, f _E is a low frequency limit and A ₀ controls the amplitude of the spectrum). κ is a key input parameter in the stochastic method for the simulation of strong ground motion, which is particularly useful for areas with insufficient strong-motion data to enable the derivation of robust empirical ground motion prediction equations, such as mainland France. Numerous studies using strong-motion data from western North America (WNA) (an active tectonic region where surface rock is predominantly soft) and eastern North America (ENA) (a stable continental region where surface rock is predominantly very hard) have demonstrated that κ varies with region and surface geology, with WNA rock sites having a κ of about 0.04 s and ENA rock sites having a κ of about 0.006 s. Lower κs are one reason why high-frequency strong ground motions in stable regions are generally higher than in active regions for the same magnitude and distance. Few, if any, estimates of κs for French sites have been published. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to estimate κ using data recorded by the French national strong-motion network (RAP) for various sites in different regions of mainland France. For each record, a value of κ is estimated by following the procedure developed by Anderson and Hough (Bull Seismol Soc Am 74:1969–1993, 1984): this method is based on the analysis of the S-wave spectrum, which has to be performed manually, thus leading to some uncertainties. For the three French regions where most records are available (the Pyrenees, the Alps and the Côtes-d’Azur), a regional κ model is developed using weighted regression on the local geology (soil or rock) and source-to-site distance. It is found that the studied regions have a mean κ between the values found for WNA and ENA. For example, for the Alps region a κ value of 0.0254 s is found for rock sites, an estimate reasonably consistent with previous studies.     

Damage spectra for the mainshock–aftershock sequence-type ground motions

Strong aftershocks have the potential to increase the damage state of the structures due to the damage accumulation. This paper investigates the damage spectra for the mainshock–aftershock sequence-type ground motions with Park–Ang damage index. A method of simulating the mainshock–aftershock sequence-type ground motions is proposed based on the modified form of Bath's law and NGA ground motion prediction equation. The damage spectra are computed using the recorded and simulated sequence-type ground motions, and the effects of period of vibration, strength reduction factor, site condition, seismic sequence, damping ratio and post-yield stiffness on damage spectra are studied statistically. The results indicate that the effect of aftershock on structural damage is significant and recorded sequence-type ground motions may underestimate the damage of long-period structures due to the incompleteness of dataset. A simplified equation is proposed to facilitate the application of damage spectra in the seismic practice for mainshock–aftershock sequence-type ground motions.     

Combined Gravimetric–Seismic Crustal Model for Antarctica

The latest seismic data and improved information about the subglacial bedrock relief are used in this study to estimate the sediment and crustal thickness under the Antarctic continent. Since large parts of Antarctica are not yet covered by seismic surveys, the gravity and crustal structure models are used to interpolate the Moho information where seismic data are missing. The gravity information is also extended offshore to detect the Moho under continental margins and neighboring oceanic crust. The processing strategy involves the solution to the Vening Meinesz-Moritz’s inverse problem of isostasy constrained on seismic data. A comparison of our new results with existing studies indicates a substantial improvement in the sediment and crustal models. The seismic data analysis shows significant sediment accumulations in Antarctica, with broad sedimentary basins. According to our result, the maximum sediment thickness in Antarctica is about 15 km under Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf. The Moho relief closely resembles major geological and tectonic features. A rather thick continental crust of East Antarctic Craton is separated from a complex geological/tectonic structure of West Antarctica by the Transantarctic Mountains. The average Moho depth of 34.1 km under the Antarctic continent slightly differs from previous estimates. A maximum Moho deepening of 58.2 km under the Gamburtsev Subglacial Mountains in East Antarctica confirmed the presence of deep and compact orogenic roots. Another large Moho depth in East Antarctica is detected under Dronning Maud Land with two orogenic roots under Wohlthat Massif (48–50 km) and the Kottas Mountains (48–50 km) that are separated by a relatively thin crust along Jutulstraumen Rift. The Moho depth under central parts of the Transantarctic Mountains reaches 46 km. The maximum Moho deepening (34–38 km) in West Antarctica is under the Antarctic Peninsula. The Moho depth minima in East Antarctica are found under the Lambert Trench (24–28 km), while in West Antarctica the Moho depth minima are along the West Antarctic Rift System under the Bentley depression (20–22 km) and Ross Sea Ice Shelf (16–24 km). The gravimetric result confirmed a maximum extension of the Antarctic continental margins under the Ross Sea Embayment and the Weddell Sea Embayment with an extremely thin continental crust (10–20 km).     

The Rock–Water–Ice Topographic Gravity Field Model RWI_TOPO_2015 and Its Comparison to a Conventional Rock-Equivalent Version

RWI_TOPO_2015 is a new high-resolution spherical harmonic representation of the Earth’s topographic gravitational potential that is based on a refined Rock–Water–Ice (RWI) approach. This method is characterized by a three-layer decomposition of the Earth’s topography with respect to its rock, water, and ice masses. To allow a rigorous separate modeling of these masses with variable density values, gravity forward modeling is performed in the space domain using tesseroid mass bodies arranged on an ellipsoidal reference surface. While the predecessor model RWI_TOPO_2012 was based on the \(5'\times 5'\) global topographic database DTM2006.0 (Digital Topographic Model 2006.0), the new RWI model uses updated height information of the \(1'\times 1'\) Earth2014 topography suite. Moreover, in the case of RWI_TOPO_2015, the representation in spherical harmonics is extended to degree and order 2190 (formerly 1800). Beside a presentation of the used formalism, the processing for RWI_TOPO_2015 is described in detail, and the characteristics of the resulting spherical harmonic coefficients are analyzed in the space and frequency domain. Furthermore, this paper focuses on a comparison of the RWI approach to the conventionally used rock-equivalent method. For this purpose, a consistent rock-equivalent version REQ_TOPO_2015 is generated, in which the heights of water and ice masses are condensed to the constant rock density. When evaluated on the surface of the GRS80 ellipsoid (Geodetic Reference System 1980), the differences of RWI_TOPO_2015 and REQ_TOPO_2015 reach maximum amplitudes of about 1 m, 50 mGal, and 20 mE in terms of height anomaly, gravity disturbance, and the radial–radial gravity gradient, respectively. Although these differences are attenuated with increasing height above the ellipsoid, significant magnitudes can even be detected in the case of the satellite altitudes of current gravity field missions. In order to assess their performance, RWI_TOPO_2015, REQ_TOPO_2015, and RWI_TOPO_2012 are validated against independent gravity information of current global geopotential models, clearly demonstrating the attained improvements in the case of the new RWI model.     

Damage evaluation of concrete gravity dams under mainshock–aftershock seismic sequences

A large mainshock may trigger numerous aftershocks within a short period, and large aftershocks have the potential to cause additional cumulative damage to structures. This paper investigates the effects and potential of aftershocks on the accumulated damage of concrete gravity dams. For that purpose, 30 as-recorded mainshock–aftershock seismic sequences are considered in this study, and a typical two-dimensional gravity dam model subjected to the selected as-recorded seismic sequences is modeled. A Concrete Damaged Plasticity (CDP) model including the strain hardening or softening behavior is selected for the concrete material. This model is used to evaluate the nonlinear dynamic response and the seismic damage process of Koyna dam under mainshock–aftershock seismic sequences. According to the characteristics of the cracking damage development, the local and global damage indices are both established to study the influence of strong aftershocks on the cumulative damage of concrete gravity dams. From the results of this investigation, it is found that the as-recorded sequences of ground motions have a significant effect on the accumulated damage and on the design of concrete gravity dams.     

Seismic soil–pile–structure kinematic and inertial interaction—A new beam approach

The main purpose of this study is to investigate the accuracy of an advanced beam model for the soil–pile–structure kinematic and inertial interaction and demonstrate its efficiency and advantages compared to other commonly used beam or solid models. Within this context, a Beam on Nonlinear Winkler Foundation model is adopted based on the Boundary Element Method (BEM), accounting for the effects induced by geometrical nonlinearity, rotary inertia and shear deformation, employing the concept of shear deformation coefficients. The soil nonlinearity is taken into consideration by means of a hybrid spring configuration consisting of a nonlinear (p–y) spring connected in series to an elastic spring–damper model. The nonlinear spring captures the near-field plastification of the soil while the spring–damper system (Kelvin–Voigt element) represents the far-field viscoelastic character of the soil. An extensive case study is carried out on a pile-column–deck system of a bridge, found in two cohesive layers of sharply different stiffness and subjected to various earthquake excitations, providing insight to several phenomena. The results of the proposed model are compared with those obtained from a Beam-FE solution as well as from a rigorous fully three-dimensional (3-D) continuum FE scheme.     

A Study of Fog Characteristics Using a Coupled WRF–COBEL Model Over Thessaloniki Airport, Greece

An attempt is made to couple the one dimensional COBEL-ISBA (Code de Brouillard à l’échelle Locale-Interactions Soil Biosphere Atmosphere) model with the WRF (Weather Research and Forecasting)–ARW (Advanced Research WRF) numerical weather prediction model to study a fog event that formed on 20 January 2008 over Thessaloniki Airport, Greece. It is the first time that the coupling of COBEL and WRF models is achieved and applied to a fog event over an airport. At first, the performance of the integrated WRF–COBEL system is investigated, by validating it against the available surface observations. The temperature and humidity vertical profiles were used for initializing the model. The performance of WRF–COBEL is considered successful, since it realistically simulated the fog onset and dissipation better than the WRF alone. The COBEL’s sensitivity to initial conditions such as temperature and specific humidity perturbations was also tested. It is found that a small increase of temperature (~1°C) counteracts fog development and results in less fog density. On the other hand, a small decrease of temperature results in much denser fog formation. It is concluded that the integrated model approach for aviation applications can be useful to study fog impact on local traffic and aviation.     

Continuum percolation theory for pressure–saturation characteristics of fractal soils: extension to non-equilibrium

Systematic experimental deviations from theoretical predictions derived for water retention characteristics of fractal porous media have previously been interpreted in terms of continuum percolation theory (at low moisture contents, below the critical volume fraction of water, α_c capillary flow ceases). In other work, continuum percolation theory was applied to find the hydraulic conductivity as a function of saturation for saturations high enough to guarantee percolation of capillary flow. Now these two problems are further linked, using percolation theory to estimate non-equilibrium water retention at matric potential values such that the equilibrium water content is too low for percolation of capillary flow paths. In particular, a procedure for developing a time-dependent moisture content is developed for experimental time scales long enough that film flow can provide an alternate mechanism for equilibrating when continuous capillary flow is not possible. The time scales are defined in terms of moisture-dependent length scales and film flow and capillary flow hydraulic conductivities. Imbibition is treated in the extreme case of no film-flow contribution to equilibration. In another application at higher matric potentials, recursive relations are derived for the water content of porous media during drying when external pressures are changed at rates too rapid for equilibrium to be attained by capillary flow.     

Classification of Structure Vulnerability and Evaluation of Earthquake Damage From Future Earthquakes

In this paper,three problems are studied and their results are presented as follows:(1)classification of seismic vulnerability for existing buildings,(2)dynamic earthquake damage matrix analysis method of buildings,and(3)earthquake damage matrix of building in the year 2000.     

A three-dimensional surface wave–ocean circulation coupled model and its initial testing

A theoretical framework to include the influences of nonbreaking surface waves in ocean general circulation models is established based on Reynolds stresses and fluxes terms derived from surface wave-induced fluctuation. An expression for the wave-induced viscosity and diffusivity as a function of the wave number spectrum is derived for infinite and finite water depths; this derivation allows the coupling of ocean circulation models with a wave number spectrum numerical model. In the case of monochromatic surface wave, the wave-induced viscosity and diffusivity are functions of the Stokes drift. The influence of the wave-induced mixing scheme on global ocean circulation models was tested with the Princeton Ocean Model, indicating significant improvement in upper ocean thermal structure and mixed layer depth compared with mixing obtained by the Mellor–Yamada scheme without the wave influence. For example, the model–observation correlation coefficient of the upper 100-m temperature along 35° N increases from 0.68 without wave influence to 0.93 with wave influence. The wave-induced Reynolds stress can reach up to about 5% of the wind stress in high latitudes, and drive 2–3 Sv transport in the global ocean in the form of mesoscale eddies with diameter of 500–1,000 km. The surface wave-induced mixing is more pronounced in middle and high latitudes during the summer in the Northern Hemisphere and in middle latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere.