An Assessment of MJO and Tropical Waves Simulated by Different Versions of the GAMIL Model

Simulated outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) outputs by two versions of the grid-point atmospheric general circulation model (GAMIL) were analyzed to assess the influences of improvements in cloud microphysics and convective parameterization schemes on the simulation of the Madden-Julian oscillation (MJO) and other tropical waves. The wavenumber-frequency spectral analysis was applied to isolate dominant modes of convectively coupled equatorial waves, including the MJO, Kelvin, equatorial Rossby (ER), mixed Rossby-gravity (MRG), and inertio-gravity (IG) waves. The performances of different versions of the GAMIL model (version 1.0 (GAMIL1.0) and version 2.0 (GAMIL2.0)) were evaluated by comparing the power spectrum distributions of these waves among GAMIL1.0, GAMIL2.0, and observational data. GAMIL1.0 shows a weak MJO signal, with the maximum variability occurring separately at wavenumbers 1 and 4 rather than being concentrated on wavenumbers 1–3, suggesting that GAMIL1.0 could not effectively capture the intraseasonal variability. However, GAMIL2.0 is able to effectively reproduce both the symmetric and anti-symmetric waves, and the significant spectra of the MJO, Kelvin, and MRG waves are in agreement with observational data, indicating that the ability of GAMIL2.0 to simulate the MJO and other tropical waves is enhanced by improving the cloud microphysics and convective parameterization schemes and implying that such improvements are crucial to further improving this model’s performance.     

Simulations of the East Asian subtropical westerly jet by LASG/IAP AGCMs

Performances of two LASG/IAP(State Key Laboratory of Numerical Modeling for Atmospheric Sci- ences and Geophysical Fluid Dynamics/Institute of Atmospheric Physics)Atmospheric General Circulation Models(AGCMs),namely GAMIL and SAMIL,in simulating the major characteristics of the East Asian subtropical westerly jet(EASWJ)in the upper troposphere are examined in this paper.The mean vertical and horizontal structures and the correspondence of the EASWJ location to the meridional temperature gradient in the upper troposphere are well simulated by two models.However,both models underestimate the EASWJ intensity in winter and summer,and are unable to simulate the bimodal distribution of the ma- jor EASWJ centers in mid-summer,relative to the observation,especially for the SAMIL model.The biases in the simulated EASWJ intensity are found to be associated with the biases of the meridional temperature gradients in the troposphere,and furthermore with the surface sensible heat flux and condensation latent heating.The models capture the major characteristics of the seasonal evolution of the diabatic heating rate averaged between 30°-45°N,and its association with the westerly jet.However,the simulated maximum diabatic heating rate in summer is located westward in comparison with the observed position,with a rela- tively strong diabatic heating intensity,especially in GAMIL.The biases in simulating the diabatic heating fields lead to the biases in simulating the temperature distribution in the upper troposphere,which may further affect the EASWJ simulations.Therefore,it is necessary to improve the simulation of the meridional temperature gradient as well as the diabatic heating field in the troposphere for the improvement of the EASWJ simulation by GAMIL and SAMIL models.     

Numerical simulation of plume-advection over a hill with coupled models. Part I: Numerical solution of the transport-equation

Summary Four numerical methods suitable for the calculation of transport are compared on a linear two-dimensional advection equation. It is found that a mass-compensation algorithm which removes negative values has also a beneficial effect on the accuracy of schemes which are of higher order but are not positive. It is shown by numerical experiments, that the upstream spline advection scheme combined with a mass compensation is prefereable for some applications rather than other high accurate positive schemes like the flux-corrected transport scheme.With 3 Figures     

高精度迎风偏斜格式的比较与分析

利用一种具有任意阶精度的一般显式有限差分公式构造出高精度迎风偏斜格式，并利用 Fourier分析法评估了这些迎风偏斜格式的耗散误差与频散误差。结果表明，偶阶精度格式的数值相速度快于实际相速度，而奇阶精度格式的数值相速度慢于实际相速度。并且，偶阶精度格式的耗散误差与频散误差低于相邻的奇阶精度格式。为了检验这些格式的计算性能，在一维问题上进行了应用。首先，考虑恒定风场条件下的一维平流试验。主要选择两种不同的初始条件来评价数值格式的精度，这两种试验问题分别是高斯函数、方波函数。试验结果表明，随着数值格式精度的提高，数值格式的误差逐渐减小。而对于高于六阶精度的格式来说，改进的程度并不是很大。其次，应用各阶格式到具有两种不同初始条件的无粘Burgers方程。数值结果表明，随着数值格式阶数的增加，数值结果也得到了明显改进。而对于高于六阶精度的格式来说，进一步的变化并不明显。总之，在兼顾效率与精度条件下六阶迎风偏斜格式是最好的。     

Improvements in Climate Simulation with Modifications to the Tiedtke Convective Parameterization in the Grid-Point Atmospheric Model of IAP LASG （GAMIL）

The grid-point atmospheric model of IAP LASG （GAMIL） was developed in and has been evaluated since early 2004. Although the model shows its ability in simulating the global climate, it suffers from some problems in simulating precipitation in the tropics. These biases seem to result mainly from the treatment of the subgrid scale convection, which is parameterized with Tiedtke＇s massflux scheme （or the Zhang-McFarlane scheme, as an option） in the model. In order to reduce the systematic biases, several modifications were made to the Tiedtke scheme used in GAMIL, including （1） an increase in lateral convective entrainment/detrainment rate for shallow convection, （2） inclusion of a relative humidity threshold for the triggering of deep convection, and （3） a reduced efficiency for the conversion of cloud water to rainwater in the convection scheme.
Two experiments, one with the original Tiedtke scheme used in GAMIL and the other with the modified scheme, were conducted to evaluate the performance of the modified scheme in this study. The results show that both the climatological mean state, such as precipitation, temperature and specific humidity, and interannual variability in the model simulation are improved with the use of this modified scheme. Results from several additional experiments show that the improvements in the model performance in different regions mainly result from either the introduction of the relative humidity threshold for triggering of the deep convection or the suppressed shallow convection due to enhanced lateral convective entrainment/detrainment rates.     

A Two-Step Shape-Preserving Advection Scheme

This paper proposes a new two-step non-oscillatory shape-preserving positive definite finite difference advection transport scheme, which merges the advantages of small dispersion error in the simple first-order upstream scheme and small dissipation error in the simple second-order Lax-Wendroff scheme and is completely different from most of present positive definite advection schemes which are based on revising the upstream scheme results. The proposed scheme is much less time consuming than present shape-preserving or non-oscillatory advection transport schemes and produces results which are comparable to the results obtained from the present more complicated schemes. Elementary tests are also presented to examine the behavior of the scheme.     

Validation of present-day regional climate simulations over Europe: LAM simulations with observed boundary conditions

 Nested limited-area modelling is one method of down-scaling general circulation model (GCM) climate change simulations. To give credibility to this method the nested limited-area model (LAM) must be shown to simulate local present-day climate conditions fairly accurately. Here seven different European limited-area models driven by observed boundary conditions (operational weather forecast analyses) are validated against observations, and inter-compared for summer and winter months. Relatively large biases are found. In summer large positive surface air temperature biases are found over southeast Europe. The main reason is deficiencies in the surface hydrological schemes causing an unrealistic drying of the soil. In at least one of the models, most likely several of them, an additional factor is an overestimation of incoming solar radiation. Apart from excessive precipitation in mountainous areas in some models they generally show a negative bias due to the drying and decreased advection from the Atlantic. In winter most models have a positive precipitation bias which seems to be caused by an enhancement of advection from the Atlantic and enhanced cyclone activity. Surface air temperature biases are negative probably due to an underestimation of the incoming longwave radiation. Received: 11 December 1996 / Accepted: 17 March 1997     

Versions g1.0 and g1.1 of the LASG/IAP Flexible Global Ocean–Atmosphere–Land System Model

The latest two versions of the IAP Flexible Global Ocean-Atmosphere-Land System (FGOALS) model- versions g1.0 and g1.1, are described in this study. Both two versions are fully coupled GCMs without any flux correction, major changes for g1.1 mainly lie in four aspects: (1) advection schemes for tracer in the ocean component model; (2) zonal filter scheme in high latitudes in the ocean component model; (3) coupling scheme for fresh water flux in high latitudes; and (4) an improved algorithm of airsea turbulent flux depending on the surface current of the ocean. As a result, the substantial cold biases in the tropical Pacific and high latitudes are improved by g1.1, especially g1.1 simulates more reasonable equatorial thermocline, poleward heat transport, zonal overturning stream function in the ocean and sea ice distribution than g1.0. Significant ENSO variability are simulated by both versions, however the ENSO behavior by g1.0 differs from the observed one in many aspects: about twice ENSO amplitude as observed, false ENSO asymmetry, only one peak period around 3 years, etc. Due to improved mean climate state by g1.1, many basic characteristics of ENSO are reproduced by g1.1, e.g., more reasonable ENSO amplitude, two peaks of power spectra for ENSO events, and positive SST skewness in the eastern Pacific as observed.     

Model evaluation experiments in the North Atlantic Basin: simulations in nonlinear terrain-following coordinates

A primitive equation ocean circulation model in nonlinear terrain-following coordinates is applied to a decadal-length simulation of the circulation in the North Atlantic Ocean. In addition to the stretched sigma coordinate, novel features of the model include the utilization of a weakly dissipative, third-order scheme for tracer advection, and a conservative and constancy-preserving time-stepping algorithm. The objectives of the study are to assess the quality of the new terrain-following model in the limit of realistic basin-scale simulations, and to compare the results obtained with it against those of other North Atlantic models used in recent multi-model comparison studies.The new model is able to reproduce many features of both the wind-driven and thermohaline circulation, and to do so within error bounds comparable with prior model simulations (e.g., CME and DYNAMO). Quantitative comparison with comparable results obtained with the Miami Isopycnic Coordinate Model (MICOM) show our terrain-following solutions are of similar overall quality when viewed against known measures of merit including meridional overturning and heat flux, Florida Straits and Gulf Stream transport, seasonal cycling of temperature and salinity, and upper ocean currents and tracer fields in the eastern North Atlantic Basin. Sensitivity studies confirm that the nonlinear vertical coordinate contributes significantly to model fidelity, and that the global inventories and spatial structure of the tracer fields are affected in important ways by the choice of lateral advection scheme.     

Analysis on the 10-yr Simulation of the Meiyu Precipitation and Its Associated Circulation with the GAMIL Model

The major features of Meiyu precipitation and associated circulation systems simulated by the grid-point atmospheric model of IAP LASG (GAMIL) with Zhang-McFarlane and Tiedtke cumulus parameterization schemes are examined in this paper. The results show that the model with both schemes can reproduce the heavy precipitation center over the Yangtze-Huai River Basin (YHRB) during the Meiyu period. The horizontal and vertical structures of the circulation systems during the Meiyu period are also well simulated,such as the intensive meridional gradients of moisture and μse (pseudo-equivalent temperature), the strong low-level southwesterly flow in the lower troposphere over East China, the location of the westerly jet stream in the upper troposphere, the strong ascending motion in heavy precipitation zone, and compensation downward motion on the northern and southern sides of the heavy precipitation belt. However, obvious discrepancies occur in the simulated temperature field in the mid-lower troposphere,especially with the Zhang-McFarlane scheme. In addition, the simulated Meiyu period (onset and duration) is found to be associated with the temperature difference in the lower atmosphere over the land and ocean, and with the cumulus parameterization schemes. The land-sea thermal contrast (LSTC) simulated by the Zhang-McFarlane scheme increases faster than that in the reanalysis from April to July, and changes from negative to positive at the end of May. Consequently, the simulated Meiyu onset begins in May, one month earlier than the observation. On the other hand, since the LSTC simulated by the Tiedtke scheme is in agreement with the reanalysis during June and July, the simulated Meiyu period is similar to the observation. The different LSTCs simulated by the GAMIL model with the two cumulus parameterization schemes may affect the Meiyu period simulations. Therefore, it is necessary to refine the cumulus parameterization scheme in order to improve the Meiyu precipitation simulation by the GAMIL model.     

阴阳网格守恒算法的设计和改进

阴阳网格上的质量守恒算法对于阴阳网格在全球模式构建和应用具有重要意义,是模式长期稳定积分和保证计算效果的重要性能指标。本研究在已有的质量均匀分布假定下阴阳网格守恒强迫算法的基础上,构建网格内质量的双线性分布和边界通量线性分布的质量守恒强迫算法,以提高阴阳网格平流计算的精度和模式积分的稳定性。运用CIP-CSLR平流方案对通量形式平流方程数值求解,分别通过"余弦钟"平流试验、正弦波试验和变形流试验对质量双线性分布、边界通量线性分布的新方案与质量和通量均匀分布的原方案进行了对比,标准化误差和标量场分布均表明新方案可有效提高阴阳网格守恒算法的计算效果,且计算负担没有明显增加,具有较好的实用价值。     

水汽输送的算法精度与模式暴雨预报能力的对比分析

利用中尺度模式ＭＭ４，研究了中尺度模式的暴雨模拟对于不同不汽输送方案的敏感性。采用５种平流差分格式来计算水汽的水平输送，用该模式对３次暴雨过程作了数值试验。并把不同方案的降水模拟结果与实况进行了对比。结果表明，中尺度模式的暴雨模拟对水汽输送方案十分敏感，正定高精度的Ｐｒａｔｈｅｒ格式的模拟结果最接近实况。     

新旧两个版本GAMIL模式对1997/98强E1 Ni(n)o年西太平洋暖池区独特云辐射强迫特征的数值模拟

1997/98年强E1 Ni(n)o背景下西太平洋暖池区云辐射强迫的变化,表现出诸多不同于以往的特征,已经成为检验气候模式性能的一个重要标准.本文基于卫星资料,分析了大气环流模式GAMIL1.0和2.0版对上述现象的模拟能力.结果表明,GAMIL1.0模式对热带地区云辐射特征分布,尤其对西太平洋暖池区的长(短)波云辐射...     

Tracer dispersal by mid-ocean mesoscale eddies. Part I. Ensemble statistics

The rate at which, and the processes by which, a passive tracer is stirred and mixed in a turbulent mesoscale eddy field are examined for environmental parameters characteristic of a homogeneous mid-ocean region. The simulated, time-dependent eddy field is obtained by direct integration of the forced/damped barotropic vorticity equation; the dispersal of a spatially localized, instantaneous release of tracer (a “tracer spot”) within the evolving velocity field is subsequently computed from the advective-diffusive equation. An ensemble of 10 independent releases is used to determin the average spreading properties of the tracer spot.On an f-plane, the ensemble-averaged dispersal is approximately isotropic, and is associated with an effective diffusion rate substantially greater than that supported in the absence of turbulent advection. Quantitatively, the effective ensemble-averaged diffusivity is shown to be 0(UL), where U and L are characteristic velocity and length scales of the turbulent flow. This estimate is consistent with the traditional mixing length hypothesis. With the addition of β, the simulated flow field has substantial zonal anisotropy. Ensemble-averaged dispersal of tracer spots is similarly anisotropic, and the overall rate of tracer dispersal is substantially reduced over its f-plane value.Both with and without β, the initial rate at which maximum tracer concentration and total tracer variance decay are given by the approximate law exp[? αγt] where γ is the RMS rate of strain, and α is approximately constant at a value of 0.5. The heightened rate of variance loss over that associated with pure (subgridscale) diffusion is shown to be accommodated by the rapid transfer of tracer variance from the largest to the shortest scale tracer features, that is, by the rapid sharpening of tracer gradients by turbulent advection. A detailed examination of the dispersal of individual tracer realizations, and the associated question of tracer streakiness, is given in part II of this work (Keffer and Haidvogel, in preparation).     

Scalar Transport over Forested Hills

Numerical simulations of scalar transport in neutral flow over forested ridges are performed using both a 1.5-order mixing-length closure scheme and a large-eddy simulation. Such scalar transport (particularly of CO₂) has been a significant motivation for dynamical studies of forest canopy–atmosphere interactions. Results from the 1.5-order mixing-length simulations show that hills for which there is significant mean flow into and out of the canopy are more efficient at transporting scalars from the canopy to the boundary layer above. For the case with a source in the canopy this leads to lower mean concentrations of tracer within the canopy, although they can be very large horizontal variations over the hill. These variations are closed linked to flow separation and recirculation in the canopy and can lead to maximum concentrations near the separation point that exceed those over flat ground. Simple scaling arguments building on the analytical model of Finnigan and Belcher (Q J Roy Meteorol Soc 130:1–29, 2004) successfully predict the variations in scalar concentration near the canopy top over a range of hills. Interestingly this analysis suggests that variations in the components of the turbulent transport term, rather than advection, give rise to the leading order variations in scalar concentration. The scaling arguments provide a quantitative measure of the role of advection, and suggest that for smaller/steeper hills and deeper/sparser canopies advection will be more important. This agrees well with results from the numerical simulations. A large-eddy simulation is used to support the results from the mixing-length closure model and to allow more detailed investigation of the turbulent transport of scalars within and above the canopy. Scalar concentration profiles are very similar in both models, despite the fact that there are significant differences in the turbulent transport, highlighted by the strong variations in the turbulent Schmidt number both in the vertical and across the hill in the large-eddy simulation that are not represented in the mixing-length model.     

Tropical Cyclone Genesis Potential Index over the Western North Pacific Simulated by LASG/IAP AGCM

Tropical cyclone genesis potential index(GPI) is a useful metric for gauging the performance of global climate models in the simulation of tropical cyclone(TC) genesis.The performance of LASG/IAP AGCM GAMIL2.0 in the simulation of GPI over the western North Pacific(WNP) is assessed in this paper.Since GPI depends on large scale environmental factors including low-level vorticity at 850 hPa,relative humidity at 700 hPa,vertical wind shear between 850 and 200 hPa,maximum potential intensity(MPI),and vertical velocity,the bias of GPI simulation is discussed from the perspective of thermal and dynamical factors.The results are compared with the ECMWF reanalysis data(ERA40).The analyses show that both the climatological spatial pattern and seasonal cycle of GPI over the WNP are reasonably simulated by GAMIL2.0,but due to the overestimation of relative humidity,the simulated GPI extends to 170°E,about 10°east to that in the reanalysis data.It is demonstrated that the bias in the simulation of monsoon trough,which is about 5°north to the reanalysis,leads to an overestimation of GPI during May-June and September-October,but an underestimation during July-August.Over the WNP,the response of GPI to ENSO is well captured by GAMIL2.0,including the eastward(westward) shift of TC genesis location during El Nin o(La Nin a) years.However,the anomalous convective center associated with El Nin o shifts westward about 20°in comparison to ERA40,which leads to the biases in both vertical velocity and relative humidity.These eventually result in the westward deflection of the boundary between the positive and negative GPI centers along 20°-30°N.The results from this study provide useful clues for the future improvement of GAMIL2.0.     

Atmosphere-ocean coupling schemes in a one-diemensional climate model

In this paper, the coupling schemes of atmosphere-ocean climate models are discussed with one-dimensional advection equations. The convergence and stability for synchronous and asynchronous schemes are demonstrated and compared. Conclusions inferred from the analysis are given below. The synchronous scheme as well as the asynchronous-implicit scheme in this model are stable for arbitrary integrating time intervals. The asynchronous explicit scheme is unstable under certain conditions, which depend upon advection velocities and heat exchange parameters in the atmosphere and oceans. With both synchronous and asynchronous stable schemes the discrete solutions converge to their unique exact ones. Advections in the atmosphere and ocean accelerate the rate of convergence of the asynchronous-implicit scheme. It is suggusted that the asynchronous-implicit coupling scheme is a stable and efficient method for most climatic simulations.     

典型非球形冰晶粒子的凝华增长数值模拟试验

在凝华增长过程中,冰晶的形状随着温度和湿度的改变而改变,准确模拟冰晶粒子的演变对于提高云模式的模拟能力起着非常重要的作用。在现有的云模式中,冰晶形状通常假设为球形,而在实际大气中,冰晶形状十分复杂。本研究中,我们根据冰晶凝华增长理论模型建立了一个单个冰晶粒子增长模型,模拟了温度分别为-1℃~-30℃时,单个典型非球形冰晶粒子的凝华增长过程。与风洞观测数据相对比,该模型能够抓住单个冰晶粒子的轴长,质量以及纵横比随温度和湿度的变化过程。我们进一步将该理论增长模型应用到群粒子的凝华增长过程的模拟。我们釆用欧拉二维正定平流输送法(MPDATA)模拟了典型非球形冰晶群粒子的凝华增长,并对比分析了在不同纵横比分辨率下的模拟效果以及温度变化对冰晶形状的影响,结果表明运用该数值方法可以合理地模拟出群粒子在凝华增长过程中纵横比的演变。与目前采用的拉格朗日-欧拉混合平流算法比较,该算法能够耦合到欧拉动力框架下的分档云模式中去,这对我们研究冰晶粒子形状对云微物理过程和动力过程的影响,以及它们对冰粒子凝华增长的反馈作用具有非常重要的科学意义。     

Evaluation of water and energy budgets in regional climate models applied over Europe

This study presents a model intercomparison of four regional climate models (RCMs) and one variable resolution atmospheric general circulation model (AGCM) applied over Europe with special focus on the hydrological cycle and the surface energy budget. The models simulated the 15 years from 1979 to 1993 by using quasi-observed boundary conditions derived from ECMWF re-analyses (ERA). The model intercomparison focuses on two large atchments representing two different climate conditions covering two areas of major research interest within Europe. The first is the Danube catchment which represents a continental climate dominated by advection from the surrounding land areas. It is used to analyse the common model error of a too dry and too warm simulation of the summertime climate of southeastern Europe. This summer warming and drying problem is seen in many RCMs, and to a less extent in GCMs. The second area is the Baltic Sea catchment which represents maritime climate dominated by advection from the ocean and from the Baltic Sea. This catchment is a research area of many studies within Europe and also covered by the BALTEX program. The observed data used are monthly mean surface air temperature, precipitation and river discharge. For all models, these are used to estimate mean monthly biases of all components of the hydrological cycle over land. In addition, the mean monthly deviations of the surface energy fluxes from ERA data are computed. Atmospheric moisture fluxes from ERA are compared with those of one model to provide an independent estimate of the convergence bias derived from the observed data. These help to add weight to some of the inferred estimates and explain some of the discrepancies between them. An evaluation of these biases and deviations suggests possible sources of error in each of the models. For the Danube catchment, systematic errors in the dynamics cause the prominent summer drying problem for three of the RCMs, while for the fourth RCM this is related to deficiencies in the land surface parametrization. The AGCM does not show this drying problem. For the Baltic Sea catchment, all models similarily overestimate the precipitation throughout the year except during the summer. This model deficit is probably caused by the internal model parametrizations, such as the large-scale condensation and the convection schemes.