Time Scales in the Unstable Atmospheric Surface Layer

Calculation of eddy covariances in the atmospheric surface layer (ASL) requires separating the instantaneous signal into mean and fluctuating components. Since the ASL is not statistically stationary, an inherent ambiguity exists in defining the mean quantities. The present study compares four methods of calculating physically relevant time scales in the unstable ASL that may be used to remove the unsteady mean components of instantaneous time signals, in order to yield local turbulent fluxes that appear to be statistically stationary. The four mean-removal time scales are: (t _c ) based on the location of the maximum in the ogive of the heat flux cospectra, () the location of the zero crossing in the multiresolution decomposition of the heat flux, (t ^*) the ratio of the mixed-layer depth over the convective velocity, and () the convergence time of the vertical velocity and temperature variances. The four time scales are evaluated using high quality, three-dimensional sonic anemometry data acquired at the Surface Layer Turbulence and Environmental Science Test (SLTEST) facility located on the salt flats of Utah’s western desert. Results indicate that and , with t _c achieving values about 2–3 times greater than t ^*. The sensitivity of the eddy covariances to the mean-removal time scale (given a fixed 4-h averaging period during midday) is also demonstrated.     

The Coherent Structure of Water Vapour Transfer in the Unstable Atmospheric Surface Layer

Observations of water vapour fluctuations over arice field show vapour ramps. Coherent structuresare first revealed by the frequently occurring ramp pattern in the vapourtrace. Wavelet and pseudo-wavelet analysis techniques were used inconditional sampling, and more than 100 hr of data have been analyzedto determine coherent structure characteristics. The most probablecoherent structure duration was in the range 2–12 sec andthe duration range of the most effective coherent structures shows somedifference between heat and water vapour transfers. Coherent structurescontribute to the major part of the total flux.     

Stable Atmospheric Boundary Layer Over a Uniform Slope: Some Theoretical Concepts

Theoretical arguments are developed to describe the effects of a uniform slope on the development of the stably stratified atmospheric boundary layer (SBL). A maximum sustainable surface buoyancy flux exists for the SBL overlying a uniform, non-sloping surface. In this study it is shown that the SBL overlying a uniform shallow slope (with gradient of the order of 1:1000) also supports a maximum sustainable buoyancy flux, B _max, but that the value of B _max is influenced by the gradient of the slope, γ. It is demonstrated that in the limit γ → 0, results for the SBL over a horizontal surface are recovered.     

An Investigation on Temperature Variance Scaling in the Atmospheric Surface Layer

We present surface-layer measurements of temperature fluctuation variance from a site characterized by small-scale inhomogeneities. Periods of marked radiative forcing are selected. The data characterized by diabatic conditions and vertical heat flux larger than some threshold (here, chosen to be 0.01 K ms⁻¹) agree quite well with the convective scaling in unstable cases, and with the z-less parameterisation (with a large scatter) in stable cases. For near-neutral cases, the similarity function diverges because of the loss of significance of the temperature scale. Departures from similarity are highlighted in cases with smaller thermal fluxes, because horizontal heterogeneity and unsteadiness become important as production terms.     

Characterization of Coherent structures in the Atmospheric Surface Layer

The ramplike coherent structures, observed in the temporal series of temperature and humidity in the atmospheric surface layer, are analyzed using the intermittency function and the wavelet transforms, with Haar, D4 and Mexican Hat functions as mother wavelets, in order to find the most efficient conditional sampling technique. It was found that the intermittency function and the wavelet transform, using Mexican Hat as mother wavelet, are the only ones that sample structures that fulfill the ramplike coherent structures definition of a slow rise followed by a sudden drop in the temporal series. The conditionally averaged structures detected by both techniques were similar for temperature, humidity, and vertical velocity at heights of 3, 5, and 9.4 m. Significant discrepancies were found among the conditional averaged structures detected by both techniques for zonal and meridional components of the wind at 11.5 m. Considering both techniques, it was observed that the averagedcoherent-structure duration ranged from 23.7 ± 0.5 s to 37.8 ± 3.0 s. Furthermore, the averaged number of events per 20-minute period ranged from 20.0 ± 1.0 to 28.5 ± 1.1, and the averaged intermittency factor from 45.0 ± 0.4% to 59.1 ± 1.3%. It was also observed that the averaged duration of the ramplike coherent structures increases with height, while their intensity, number, and intermittency factor decrease. Despite the good matching obtained for temperature and humidity, the coherent-structure properties did not show the expected variation with wind speed, stability parameter, and friction velocity. The Kolmogorov–Smirnov test indicated that the intermittent function and the wavelet transform did not detect coherent structures belonging to the same population.     

Turbulence Structure of the Unstable Atmospheric Surface Layer and Transition to the Outer Layer

We present a new model of the structure of turbulence in the unstable atmospheric surface layer, and of the structural transition between this and the outer layer. The archetypal element of wall-bounded shear turbulence is the Theodorsen ejection amplifier (TEA) structure, in which an initial ejection of air from near the ground into an ideal laminar and logarithmic flow induces vortical motion about a hairpin-shaped core, which then creates a second ejection that is similar to, but larger than, the first. A series of TEA structures form a TEA cascade. In real turbulent flows TEA structures occur in distorted forms as TEA-like (TEAL) structures. Distortion terminates many TEAL cascades and only the best-formed TEAL structures initiate new cycles. In an extended log layer the resulting shear turbulence is a complex, self-organizing, dissipative system exhibiting self-similar behaviour under inner scaling. Spectral results show that this structure is insensitive to instability. This is contrary to the fundamental hypothesis of Monin--Obukhov similarity theory. All TEAL cascades terminate at the top of the surface layer where they encounter, and are severely distorted by, powerful eddies of similar size from the outer layer. These eddies are products of the breakdown of the large eddies produced by buoyancy in the outer layer. When the outer layer is much deeper than the surface layer the interacting eddies are from the inertial subrange of the outer Richardson cascade. The scale height of the surface layer, z _s, is then found by matching the powers delivered to the creation of emerging TEAL structures to the power passing down the Richardson cascade in the outer layer. It is z _s = u _* ³ /k_s, where u _* is friction velocity, k is the von Kármán constant and _s is the rate of dissipation of turbulence kinetic energy in the outer layer immediately above the surface layer. This height is comparable to the Obukhov length in the fully convective boundary layer. Aircraft and tower observations confirm a strong qualitative change in the structure of the turbulence at about that height. The tallest eddies within the surface layer have height z _s, so z _s is a new basis parameter for similarity models of the surface layer.     

大气边界层阵风相干结构的产生条件

壁湍流相干结构的发现是近代湍流研究的重大进展之一,从20世纪50年代开始,在大气边界层湍流中也发现了相干结构——对流云街,并进行了系统的研究。近些年来,人们发现在近地层湍流中也存在相干结构。利用北京325 m气象塔对城市下垫面中大风和小风天气的风速分析,发现较有规律的周期3~6 min的阵风,且有明显的相干结构,而对不同下垫面的阵风研究,均发现存在这种相干结构,这种阵风相干结构对通量输送有不可忽视的作用。本文利用2012年4月甘肃省民勤县巴丹吉林沙漠观测塔的超声风速和平均场风速、温度观测资料,对阵风相干结构的产生条件进行了分析。采用傅立叶变换,将三维超声风速按频率分成基流(周期10分钟以上)、阵风扰动(周期1到10分钟)、湍流脉动(周期小于1分钟)三部分,结合平均场的资料分析发现:阵风相干结构出现在静力中性、不稳定甚至略微稳定的条件下,或者说机械作用主导的大气边界层,阵风区就会出现相干结构,热力作用对其有抑制和干扰的作用。从而,阵风的相干结构和壁面相干结构都出现在中性条件下,是机械湍流的现象,都主导着动量能量的输运。阵风区的相干结构并不等同于对流云街,他们出现在不同的大气稳定度条件下且尺度不同。     

On the Kinetic Energy Budget of the Unstable Atmospheric Surface Layer

We present a new account of the kinetic energy budget within an unstable atmospheric surface layer (ASL) beneath a convective outer layer. It is based on the structural model of turbulence introduced by McNaughton (Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 112: 199–221, 2004). In this model the turbulence is described as a self-organizing system with a highly organized structure that resists change by instability. This system is driven from above, with both the mean motion and the large-scale convective motions of the outer layer creating shear across the surface layer. The outer convective motions thus modulate the turbulence processes in the surface layer, causing variable downwards fluxes of momentum and kinetic energy. The variable components of the momentum flux sum to zero, but the associated energy divergence is cumulative, increasing both the average kinetic energy of the turbulence in the surface layer and the rate at which that energy is dissipated. The tendency of buoyancy to preferentially enhance the vertical motions is opposed by pressure reaction forces, so pressure production, which is the work done against these reaction forces, exactly equals buoyant production of kinetic energy. The pressure potential energy that is produced is then redistributed throughout the layer through many conversions, back and forth, between pressure potential and kinetic energy with zero sums. These exchanges generally increase the kinetic energy of the turbulence, the rate at which turbulence transfers momentum and the rate at which it dissipates energy, but does not alter its overall structure. In this model the velocity scale for turbulent transport processes in the surface layer is (kzɛ)^1/3 rather than the friction velocity, u_*. Here k is the von Kármán constant, z is observation height, ɛ is the dissipation rate. The model agrees very well with published experimental results, and provides the foundation for the new similarity model of the unstable ASL, replacing the older Monin–Obukhov similarity theory, whose assumptions are no longer tenable.     

Large-Eddy Simulation of the Stable Atmospheric Boundary Layer using Dynamic Models with Different Averaging Schemes

Large-eddy simulation (LES) of a stable atmospheric boundary layer is performed using recently developed dynamic subgrid-scale (SGS) models. These models not only calculate the Smagorinsky coefficient and SGS Prandtl number dynamically based on the smallest resolved motions in the flow, they also allow for scale dependence of those coefficients. This dynamic calculation requires statistical averaging for numerical stability. Here, we evaluate three commonly used averaging schemes in stable atmospheric boundary-layer simulations: averaging over horizontal planes, over adjacent grid points, and following fluid particle trajectories. Particular attention is focused on assessing the effect of the different averaging methods on resolved flow statistics and SGS model coefficients. Our results indicate that averaging schemes that allow the coefficients to fluctuate locally give results that are in better agreement with boundary-layer similarity theory and previous LES studies. Even among models that are local, the averaging method is found to affect model coefficient probability density function distributions and turbulent spectra of the resolved velocity and temperature fields. Overall, averaging along fluid pathlines is found to produce the best combination of self consistent model coefficients, first- and second-order flow statistics and insensitivity to grid resolution.     

TRAC98: Detection of Coherent Structures in a Convective Boundary Layer using Airborne Measurements

The TRAC98 experimental campaign (Turbulence Radar Aircraft Cells) devoted to coherent structures analysis took place over the Beauce plain (France) during summer 1998. It allowed us to collect a large dataset of airborne measurements in addition to various ground measurements. This study aims at diagnosing the occurrence of coherent structures within the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) through airborne measurements. The statistical analysis performed as a first step from turbulent parameters underlined the homogeneity of the ABL over the Beauce plain. However mixed-layer scaling failed at the top of the ABL, even when taking into account the entrainment rate. Coherent structures were detected through the analysis of ABL isotropy, using the opportunity of sampling with two perpendicular crossing planes, one of them being aligned with the wind. This approach allowed us to determine an organization scheme of the ABL for three of the five flights (ARAT30, MIV30 and MIV27). For the ARAT30 flight, the analysis was pursued by focusing on measurements of fluctuations in the inner flight legs. In this way, the low-level cloud cover has been investigated from the downward visible radiation (VISD). The results indicated an anisotropy of the horizontal cloud size. Secondly, the variations of some parameters were analysed through lagged correlation functions. This allowed us to infer relationships between the vertical velocity, VISD, mixing ratio and lifting condensation level. Length scales have also been extracted, and confirmed the ABL organization during the ARAT30 flight. Finally, the anisotropy observed in various flights has been investigated with respect to the underestimation of the latent heat fluxes revealed by the imbalance of the surface energy budget.     

Variance Method to Determine Turbulent Fluxes of Momentum And Sensible Heat in The Stable Atmospheric Surface Layer

Evidence is presented that in the stable atmospheric surface layer turbulent fluxes of heat and momentum can be determined from the standard deviations of longitudinal wind velocity and temperature, σ _u and σ _T respectively, measured at a single level. An attractive aspect of this method is that it yields fluxes from measurements that can be obtained with two-dimensional sonic anemometers. These instruments are increasingly being used at official weather stations, where they replace the standard cup anemometer–wind vane system. With methods such as the one described in this note, a widespread, good quality, flux network can be established, which would greatly benefit the modelling community. It is shown that a ‘variance’ dimensionless height (ζ _σ) defined from σ _u and σ _T is highly related to the ‘conventional’ dimensionless stability parameter ζ=z/L, where z is height and L is the Obukhov length. Empirical functions for ζ _σ are proposed that allow direct calculation of heat and momentum fluxes from σ _u and σ _T. The method performs fairly well also during a night of intermittent turbulence.     

宜昌冬季两次降水过程大气边界层的观测分析

利用宜昌2007年12月10-25日的加密观测资料,分析了两次低值系统经过宜昌时大气边界层的温湿风廓线结构及其日变化特征。结果表明：位温廓线具有明显的日变化特征,对流边界层在白天出现和发展,其高度可达600m,而稳定边界层在夜间出现和发展,其高度可达300m,降水会抑制对流边界层和稳定边界层的发展;湿度廓线结构及其日变化与对流边界层的发展有关,总体上湿度随高度减小,贴近地面的薄层湿度随高度减小较快,而混合层内湿度随高度变化较小,出现降水时,近地层的湿度有明显增加,大气边界层内湿度随高度快速平稳减小;风速廓线结构比较复杂,总体上风速随高度增大,在大气边界层低层有时会出现一个风速极大值,风速廓线没有明显的日变化特征,大气边界层内风向变化较大,但以偏东风为主。     

A Note on the Flux-Variance Similarity Relationships for Heat and Water Vapour in the Unstable Atmospheric Surface Layer

Atmospheric surface layer (ASL) experiments over the past 10 years demonstrate that the flux-variance similarity functions for water vapour are consistently larger in magnitude than their temperature counterpart. In addition, latent heat flux calculations using the flux-variance method do not compare as favorably to eddy- correlation measurements when compared to their sensible heat counterpart. These two findings, in concert with measured heat to water vapour transport efficiencies in excess of unity, are commonly used as evidence of dissimilarity between heat and water vapour transport in the unstable atmospheric surface layer. In this note, it is demonstrated that even if near equality in flux-profile similarity functions for heat and water vapour is satisfied, the flux-variance similarity functions for water vapour are larger in magnitude than temperature for a planar, homogeneous, unstably-stratified turbulent boundary-layer flow.     

Scaling Range Exponents From X-Wire Measurements In The Atmospheric Surface Layer

This paper focuses on the behaviour of moments, up to order 6, of longitudinal and vertical velocity increments, measured in the atmospheric surface layer, at a height of 1.7 m. The local derivatives of these moments with respect to the spatial separation between two points indicate that inertial range power-law exponents cannot be determined unambiguously. This is supported by the local slopes of moments of the locally averaged energy dissipation rate but contrasts with the extensive power-law ranges indicated by spectra of longitudinal and vertical velocity fluctuations. The third-order longitudinal velocity structure function provides stronger evidence of anisotropy in the inertial range than either the second-order velocity structure functions or the velocity spectra.     

Determination of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer Height from Radiosonde and Lidar Backscatter

The height of the atmospheric boundary layer is derived with the help of two different measuring systems and methods. From radiosoundings the boundary layer height is determined by the parcel method and by temperature and humidity gradients. From lidar backscatter measurements a combination of the averaging variance method and the high-resolution gradient method is used to determine boundary layer heights. In this paper lidar-derived boundary layer heights on a 10 min basis are presented. Datasets from four experiments – two over land and two over the sea – are used to compare boundary layer heights from both methods. Only the daytime boundary layer is investigated because the height of the nighttime stable boundary layer is below the range of the lidar. In many situations the boundary layer heights from both systems coincide within ±200 m. This corresponds to the standard deviation of lidar-derived 10-min values within a 1-h interval and is due to the time and space variability of the boundary layer height. Deviations appear for certain situations and depend on which radiosonde method is applied. The parcel method fails over land surfaces in the afternoon when the boundary layer stabilizes and over the ocean when the boundary layer is slightly stable. An automatic radiosonde gradient method sometimes fails when multiple layers are present, e.g. a residual layer above the growing convective boundary layer. The lidar method has the advantage of continuous tracing and thus avoids confusion with elevated layers. On the other hand, it mostly fails in situations with boundary layer clouds     

Observations of Solitary Waves in the Stable Atmospheric Boundary Layer

Large amplitude, isolated, wave-like phenomena have been observed in the lowest 40 m of the strongly stably stratified atmospheric boundary layer overlying a coastal Antarctic ice shelf. The waves only occur when prevailing wind speeds are low. They always propagate from over the land, with phase speeds exceeding the local mean wind speed. They have wavelengths of the order of 200 m. Several examples are described and a summary of the statistical properties of these waves events is presented.     

Intermittent Bursting of Turbulence in a Stable Boundary Layer with Low-level Jet

The atmospheric stable boundary layer (SBL) with a low-level jet is simulated experimentally using a thermally stratified wind tunnel. The turbulence structure and flow characteristics are investigated by simultaneous measurements of velocity and temperature fluctuations and by flow visualization. Attention is focused on the effect of strong wind shear due to a low-level jet on stratified boundary layers with strong stability. Occasional bursting of turbulence in the lower portion of the boundary layer can be found in the SBL with strong stability. This bursting originates aloft away from the surface and transports fluid with relatively low velocity and temperature upward and fluid with relatively high velocity and temperature downward. Furthermore, the relationship between the occurrence of turbulence bursting and the local gradient Richardson number (Ri) is investigated. The Ri becomes larger than the critical Ri, Ri_cr = 0.25, in quiescent periods. On the other hand, the Ri number becomes smaller than Ri_cr during bursting events.     

Variability Of The Stable And Unstable Atmospheric Boundary-Layer Height And Its Scales Over A Boreal Forest

Radiosondes releases during the NOPEX-WINTEX experiment carried out in late winter in Northern Finland were analysed for the determination of the height h of the atmospheric boundary layer. We investigate various possible scaling approaches, based on length scales using micrometeorological turbulence surface measurements and the background atmospheric stratification above h. Under stable conditions, the three previously observed turbulence regimes delineated by values of z/L (L is the Obukhov length) appears as a blueprint for understanding the departures found for the suitability of the Ekman scaling based on L_E = u_/f (u is the friction velocity and f the Coriolis parameter). The length scale L_N = u_/N (where N is the Brunt–Väisälä frequency) appears to be a useful scale under most stable conditions, especially in association with L. Under unstable conditions, shear production of turbulence is still significant, so that the three scales L, L_N and L_E are again relevant and the dimensionless ratios _N = L_N/L and L_N/L_E = N/f describe well the WINTEX data. Furthermore, in the classical scaling framework, the unstable domain may also be divided into three regimes as reflected by the dependence ofu_/f on instability (z/L).     

Coherent Structures and the Dissimilarity of Turbulent Transport of Momentum and Scalars in the Unstable Atmospheric Surface Layer

Atmospheric stability effects on the dissimilarity between the turbulent transport of momentum and scalars (water vapour and temperature) are investigated in the neutral and unstable atmospheric surface layers over a lake and a vineyard. A decorrelation of the momentum and scalar fluxes is observed with increasing instability. Moreover, different measures of transport efficiency (correlation coefficients, efficiencies based on quadrant analysis and bulk transfer coefficients) indicate that, under close to neutral conditions, momentum and scalars are transported similarly whereas, as the instability of the atmosphere increases, scalars are transported increasingly more efficiently than momentum. This dissimilarity between the turbulent transport of momentum and scalars under unstable conditions concurs with, and is likely caused by, a change in the topology of turbulent coherent structures. Previous laboratory and field studies report that under neutral conditions hairpin vortices and hairpin packets are present and dominate the vertical fluxes, while under free-convection conditions thermal plumes are expected. Our results (cross-stream vorticity variation, quadrant analysis and time series analysis) are in very good agreement with this picture and confirm a change in the structure of the coherent turbulent motions under increasing instability, although the exact structure of these motions and how they are modified by stability requires further investigation based on three-dimensional flow data.