How Textbooks Influence the Curriculum in Geography

Abstract

In this study, pairs of students in fifth and seventh grade generated and answered questions based on maps. More than 90 percent of the questions they generated made sense with reference to the map on which they were based. Each of these questions was coded in terms of both its informational content (symbols, latitude and longitude, and scale) and the process by which a map user obtains the information from the map (map reading, map interpreting, map inferring). Results indicated that students most often generated three types of questions, which together accounted for more than 80 percent of all the questions: 1) read symbol, 2) infer latitude and longitude, and 3) interpret scale. Qualitatively, the questions were analyzed for what they revealed about student confusion about map content. Problems with all three aspects of map content were common among both fifth- and seventh-grade students. The problem-posing technique proved useful for evaluating student's knowledge.     

Volume 111 Index

Abstract

Concepts related to alternative map projections can be difficult to explain to students given the diversity and complexity of available projections. Students frequently have trouble understanding how distortions caused by the choice of a projection can affect map readability and comprehension. Programs available for personal computers now provide geography and cartography instructors with a method for interactively educating students concerning the distortions associated with alternative map projections. Such software can be incorporated into laboratory assignments in introductory geography courses or in more advanced courses that deal with map design or thematic cartography.     

INCORPORATING INHERENT MAP ERROR INTO FLOOD-HAZARD ANALYSIS

Maps are an important source of data for planning and land use analysis of flood-prone areas. Map users with inadequate training are not aware that map errors can lead to ineffective decisions. Although inherent errors introduced by transformation, map construction, and symbolization are never identified on maps, they limit the effectiveness of maps as sources of data. Additional vertical and horizontal errors can be introduced during map use. Knowledge of the sources and amounts of such errors should result in more effective decisions regarding flood hazards.     

Creating a County Agricultural Atlas

Abstract

Compiling an agricultural atlas of the home county is a means of learning about a significant aspect of the local environment. Each student selects a product of the county for which he prepares a distribution map and an agricultural calendar of the month-by-month routine of the producer. Cartographic concepts can be taught during the design phase of map construction. Examples are given from An Agricultural Atlas of Lane County (Oregon).     

The Significance of Geography in American Education

Abstract

Orienteering is a rapidly growing sport, developed in Sweden, which has great possibilities for education in geography. It can be conceived as an organizing device for outdoor work and as a basis for the development of meaningful practical exercises, particularly in the area of map work, including map construction. Various examples and possibilities, for a wide range of grade levels, are outlined.     

MAPS AND METAPHORS

It has been argued that the confusion surrounding the term map in the expression, mental map, renders the expression meaningless. The confusion can be removed if we consider two sources of misunderstanding. First, there is a failure to appreciate the complex, double role that the map plays in our analogical thinking, and second, there is a failure to distinguish between the map as metaphor and the map as analogy.     

A double continuous approach to visualization and analysis of categorical maps

A method to visualize multiple membership maps, called ‘Colour mixture’ (CM) is described and compared with alternative techniques: defuzzification and Pixel mixture. Six landform parameters were used to derive the landform classes using supervised fuzzy k-means classification. The continuous categorical map is derived by GIS calculations with colours, where colour values are considered to represent the taxonomic space spanned by the attribute variables. Coordinates of the nine class centres (landform facets) were first transformed from multivariate to two-dimensional attribute space using factor analysis, and then projected on the Hue Saturation Intensity (HSI) colourwheel. The taxonomic value was coded with the Hue and confusion with Saturation. To improve visual impression, saturation was replaced with whiteness. Classes that were closer in attribute space were merged into similar generic colours. The CM technique limits the derived mixed-colour map to seven generic hues independently of the total number of classes, which provides a basis for automated generalization. The confusion index derived from the mixed-colour map was used to derive primary boundaries and to locate areas of higher taxonomic confusion.     

Geographical Publications

Abstract

Using Gardner's Multiple Intelligences framework to teach map symbols to upper elementary school students can effectively communicate essential map content while allowing students to develop in all areas of intelligence. Curricular activities based on the seven intelligences initially identified by Gardner help students not only to recognize and practice their strengths but to stretch beyond their strengths to practice their less-developed intelligences. This article briefly reviews Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences and describes multiple intelligences-inspired tasks for learning fundamental concepts about map symbols.     

Map Reading and Abuse

Abstract

The various advantages and limitations of geographical mapping known to map users can be functionally related to the few basic principles which constitute the very nature of the cartographic technique. Numerous map interpretation errors may be traced in large part to a common failure on the part of map users to grasp and effectively deal with these same mapping principles. Since it is possible to identify situations in environmental decision making and planning where the misuse of maps, or outright map reading abuses, could lead to adverse human and environmental impact, the problem is indeed serious. Strategies for minimizing the misuse or abuse of geographical maps appear to rely most heavily on a thorough understanding of basic mapping principles.     

Interpretation of Specialized Agricultural Settlements on Topographic Maps

Abstract

The topographic map can successfully supplement the geographical textbook and the field trip in aiding the teacher in the illustration of the cultural character of a place. Interpretation of cultural features on topographic maps requires a knowledge of map symbolization and some familiarity with the area or topic under study. An example of the type of cultural features that are well-illustrated by topographic maps is specialized agricultural settlement such as the gentleman horse farm. The student can formulate an interpretation key of the characteristic features of each settlement type. This will allow the successful interpretation of maps from distant or unfamiliar areas through comparison and even allow the map reader to “travel,” although vicariously, to distant areas.     

The World's Import Trade and the United States' Share Therein

Abstract

Many student geography organizations or clubs associated with colleges and universities undertake community service projects each year to meet local needs and to gain recognition within the community. A uniquely geographical project of playground map painting provides a great community service and goes one step further by incorporating elements of quality service-learning for the geography club members. Painting projects for large school playground maps of the world, United States, or home state are student-planned and student-run. The final painted map can be used for geographic education in elementary schools by conveying basic spatial and geographic relationships. This article will detail a proven method of producing a colorful, useful playground map that can be employed by geography clubs as a service-learning activity and used by educators in elementary schools.     

The Trade and Industries of Western South America

Abstract

This research was based on an instructional module developed and used to investigate whether GIS can be used to enhance fourth grade students' geographic knowledge and map skills. Another goal was to identify challenges the teachers and the students face using GIS.

Findings from the study suggest that using GIS in the classroom helps students improve their geographic knowledge and maps skills. In addition, this study found that the students' geographic content knowledge tended to improve gradually and the knowledge transferred to the subsequent lessons, while certain map skills tended to develop in a more specific manner.     

Mapping at the Age of Three

Abstract

A study of toy-play mapping by three-, four-, and five-year-old children demonstrates that children can clearly represent a cognitive map at the age of three. Mapping, therefore, is developmentally primitive, and formal map-learning can begin at the age of school entrance.     

Utilizing the Audio-Tutorial Approach

Abstract

Construction of raised-relief maps by students in middle school to high school is a rewarding “hands-on” experience. A major feature of this project is that materials are readily available, inexpensive and manageable by students themselves. Tracing from topographic maps on to inexpensive, easily-carved materials like cardboard or foam-core board involves the student in map interpretation techniques. Concepts such as interpreting elevations from contour lines, recognizing symbolization on a map, seeing raised-relief as representing “the lay of the land,” understanding map scale, and recognition of color in representation of elevations are part of this experience. Carving and construction of the raised-relief map give the student an appreciation of topographic features in 3-D. The finished model can serve as a display and learning tool for the future.     

MAPS,METAPHORS AND MUDDLES

The idea of a cognitive or mental map has been a source of confusion in the geographical literature for some time. Downs suggests that the confusion can be removed if we give consideration to the role of maps in metaphors and analogies. This raises important questions, but treating the map as a double metaphor does nothing to clarify these issues. Cartographic skills are not the result of introspection and hypothesizing such maps-in-the-head can only impede our understanding of spatial behavior.     

Map Use by Adults with Visual Impairments

In this paper we summarize five experiments that were designed to investigate how tactile maps contribute to the cognitive maps of people with visual impairments. In two experiments we demonstrated that tactile maps can contribute to peoples' ability to learn a route through an unfamiliar area. From the results of two further studies, we argue that compared to people with sight, people with visual impairments have greater difficulty encoding information from a map. We considered this directly in a fifth experiment by investigating how people with visual impairments search and learn a map. We found that they used less efficient strategies than people with sight. We conclude that tactile maps are an important source of geographical information when people need to learn about new environments, but we also point out that to benefit most from tactile maps people need to encode the map information as effectively as possible. As people with visual impairments do not always use the most appropriate encoding strategies we suggest that tactile map users might benefit from greater experience and training in map encoding strategies.     

Maps and Spaces

Two quite different concepts of space are important in geography and environmental psychology. One is the concept of macro-environment, of space as geographical scale. The other is the concept of form-at-a-timeless-instant: of naive geometry. Confusing these two concepts leads to serious errors. This paper examines some methodological and philosophical sources of this confusion, and points to a number of research problems in geography and psychology that can benefit from an untangling of the two concepts of space. One such problem is the need to understand the development of mapping abilities in very young children. Another is the larger question of building a body of theory to explain the development of macro-environmental cognition and behavior.     

Newsprint Manufacturing in the Southeast

Abstract

This paper is a response to the two-fold thesis of Bartz; namely, that (1) maps are not really important in our society today, and (2) educators say that they value maps and mapping, but the evidence of children's performance in using maps is contradictory. In exploring problems related to Bartz's contention, the author arrives at four tentative conclusions :

1. A child can and does learn many but not all of the map concepts and skills at an earlier age when taught them developmentally, systematically, functionally, and effectively.

2. Mere manipulation of materials does not constitute a concrete experience for a child.

3. Map-related concepts must be taught prior to, and continued concurrently with, map skills.

4. The commercially prepared map tends to appear near the highest level of abstract mapping and is therefore not necessarily the most effective means of map instruction for the elementary teacher.

A most significant implication from the conclusions is the need to re-examine the preparation of the elementary teacher. If the focus of the education of a teacher moves in the direction outlined in this paper, Bartz's premise could be reversed.     

The Importance of Geography in Education II

Abstract

The concept of scale is fundamental to geography, yet the definitions for “scale” and related spatial terms can be confusing to those working in other spatial science disciplines. This is particularly true in the emerging multidisciplinary world of integrated remote sensing and geographic information systems, or IGIS's, where data of different types and at various spatial and temporal scales are combined to support complex space-time data analyses. Without a basic lexicon of accepted scale terms, working within an IGIS can breed confusion in the interpretation of data and the models that result from an IGIS construct. This paper provides some terminologies of scale that can be used as a framework for a multidisciplinary lexicon of accepted scaling terms and describes their relationships to an IGIS. It also illustrates how scaling terms can be potentially misunder stood when applied to geographic techniques that are used in disciplines related to geography.