In the Critical Zone: Geography at the U.S. Geological Survey

Geography is again becoming an integral part of the premier natural‐science agency of the federal government. Geographic research emphasizes the surface of the earth, a portion of the earth system that the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) defines as the “critical zone.” Although geography was part of the USGS from the creation of the agency, in recent years geography in the agency has largely been limited to topographic mapping. Recently, the USGS and an advisory committee of the National Research Council (NRC) reviewed the role of geography at the Survey. The committee's report, along with ongoing decision‐making in the federal government, is likely to reshape geography in the USGS. The newly defined USGS has a regional structure and four disciplines: geology, hydrology, biology, and geography. The NRC report emphasizes the need for the creation of a spatial database called the National Map to replace the existing series of paper topographic maps. The report also outlines the need for geographic research in geographic information science (GIScience), nature‐society connections, and bridging of science to decision‐making. The NRC report has been briefed throughout the USGS, in the federal executive branch, and in Congress. The changing role for geography in the USGS requires change in the agency culture, revised budgetary decisions, and the establishment of a long‐term core agenda for research. Academic geographers will need to prepare a new generation of geographers for participation in the USGS and similar agencies.     

Employment Trends in Geography,Part 1: Enrollment and Degree Patterns*

This paper is the first in a series of three papers dealing with the current and future labor market for geographers. It is based on a report prepared by the Association of American Geographers' (AAG) Employment Forecasting Committee to the National Research Council's (NRC) Rediscovering Geography Committee. This report provides a data-based analysis of the past and future supply of geographers, the current labor market conditions in the field, and the factors likely to influence the future demand for geographers (faculty hiring, geographic education initiatives, trends in private-sector jobs, etc.). Each year some 4,000 individuals receive degrees in geography from America's institutions of higher education. They, or some portion of them, make up the new supply of geographers entering the labor market. In the near future (up to five years), the availability of new geographers is related to the number of geography students now in the educational pipeline. Their current specialties, and the specialties of the programs from which they come, tell us about the types of skills and the kinds of interests to be held by future labor force entrants. In the longer term (five to ten years), the number of new geographers will be influenced by geographic education initiatives at the precollegiate level. More and better geographic instruction in elementary and secondary schools will expose more students to geography as a field of study and as a potential career path. The purposes of this paper are to (1) review degree and enrollment trends in geography, (2) assess the “trickle-up” effects of geographic education initiatives at the precollegiate level, and (3) investigate the characteristics of future supply as evidenced by the types of occupations for which geography departments are now preparing students.     

地理科学的中国进展与国际趋势

中国地理学取得了骄人的进展,表现在科研方向的突破、对国家建设的贡献、研究手段的革新、对科学和教育的贡献、对社会的贡献等方面。但当前中国也存在基础研究薄弱、学科整合不足、学术走向迷茫、竞争能力堪忧、全球视野欠缺、地理教育错位等问题。国际地理学对科学界所确定的关键研究问题表示出更大的关注,科学界也将更加了解地理学及其视角能对科学知识做出的贡献。地理学所关切的科学问题直指今天决策者的紧迫需求。地理学家以多种方式对解决实际问题做出贡献。国际地理学的发展聚焦在：揭示复杂系统中的不平衡和动态,认识全球化 (包括环境、经济、人口、政府和文化等)的潮流及其影响,建立从地方到全球的空间连续系列研究,利用包括时间系列数据在内的纵向数据进行过程比较研究,加强地理学理论、技术和研究成果对决策的影响,加强地理教育,包括努力提高公众的地理学能力,改进高等院校地理学家的训练,提高地理理解力,加强地理组织机构。     

Geography’s “World view”: The ontological issues of geography

Contemporary science philosophy suggests that discussing ontological problems is of fundamental significance broadly within certain specific disciplines. Natural and social science research are inseparable from philosophical guidance; for instance, the philosophy of geography is the ideological basis for geography. The traditional philosophy of geography is methodology-oriented, which primarily emphasizes the “logical structure of geography explanations,” and ignores the discussion of its ontology. This study, in the context of the philosophy of science, explores the relationships between methodology, ontology, and the philosophy of geography, defines the connotations of geographical ontology, analyzes the links and differences between philosophical ontology and scientific ontology of geography, clarifies the nature of geographical ontology, and summaries its theoretical values. The ontology of geography incorporates the philosophically ontological beliefs of geographers and geographical schools and the ontological commitment of the theory of geography. As different geographers hold different philosophical viewpoints, their ontological beliefs are different; one geographical theory asserts an ontological commitment of “what is there,” which determines the nature and types of objectives the theory references. The ontological beliefs of geographers determine their epistemology, methodology, and axiology, and the ontological commitment of a geographical theory is the premise and basis of that theory.     

地理学本体论——内涵、性质与理论价值（英文）

Contemporary science philosophy suggests that discussing ontological problems is of fundamental significance broadly within certain specific disciplines. Natural and social science research are inseparable from philosophical guidance; for instance, the philosophy of geography is the ideological basis for geography. The traditional philosophy of geography is methodology-oriented, which primarily emphasizes the "logical structure of geography explanations," and ignores the discussion of its ontology. This study, in the context of the philosophy of science, explores the relationships between methodology, ontology, and the philosophy of geography, defines the connotations of geographical ontology, analyzes the links and differences between philosophical ontology and scientific ontology of geography, clarifies the nature of geographical ontology, and summaries its theoretical values. The ontology of geography incorporates the philosophically ontological beliefs of geographers and geographical schools and the ontological commitment of the theory of geography. As different geographers hold different philosophical viewpoints, their ontological beliefs are different; one geographical theory asserts an ontological commitment of "what is there," which determines the nature and types of objectives the theory references. The ontological beliefs of geographers determine their epistemology, methodology, and axiology, and the ontological commitment of a geographical theory is the premise and basis of that theory.     

A network approach to the production of geographic context using exponential random graph models

ABSTRACT

The notion of context continues to be both an enduring rationale and empirical problem for addressing human agency for geographers. Despite its centrality to geographic scholarship, context has largely been an abstraction in geography with relatively little effort to either clarify what it means or how to formally operationalize it for research purposes. When context has been formally addressed, it has primarily emphasized either impacts on agency at a specific scale through a reliance on a place-based interpretation. This paper takes up the issue of context by developing a multi-scalar theoretical framework that is suited for use with social network-based statistical models called exponential random graph models or ERGMs. The theory of context emphasizes the importance for both geographic and social contexts for agency while also recognizing place specific and larger scale influences. Using network data about World War I, a series of ERGMs are developed to demonstrate the importance of multiple types of contexts to the observed outcomes. The approach used in this paper reinforces the old truism that context matters by demonstrating it empirically. Most importantly, this paper illustrates the value of continued engagement with a wider spectrum of the theories of how and why context matters.     

在一般性与特殊性之间的地理学——以《地理学思想：批判性导论》为范本的考察

地理学思想史研究和教学对学科发展意义重大。地理学发展过程中既有寻求一般性理论的传统,也有对地方特性的强调,二者间的紧张关系是地理学思想史的一个主调。尤其是第二次世界大战之后,实证主义、人文主义、马克思主义、女性主义、后现代、后结构、后人文、关系地理学等众多学派涌现,其核心争论正是追求一般性还是特殊性。聚焦该问题,以《地理学思想：批判性导论》一书为典型案例,通过梳理地理学思想流派更迭的简史,总结一般性和特殊性之间的辩证互动关系,并指出未来中国地理学思想研究和教育的核心在于批判性。只有通过批判性思考和实践,才能更深入地了解学科性质及其演变历程,才能更好地进行学术普及和理论创新。     

试论地理信息科学

通过阐述地理信息科学的定义,及其地理学传统和技术驱动机制,论证地理信息科学是地理学信息革命和范式演进的结果,是从信息机理的角度研究地球表层人地关系系统的地理学科,并提出其内容框架和学科体系。     

A Folk Guide to Geography as a Holistic Science

Abstract

This article defines geography as a holistic science that seeks to explain variations in the human-environment relationship over the earth's surface. By critically evaluating the ontological, epistemological, and methodological commitments of geography, an attempt is made to bridge the gap between the specialized, professional discussion of geography and practical pedagogical needs. The central argument is threefold. First, by combining natural and social science, the geographical perspective is crucial as a means to explain, and to help solve, real world problems. Second, such a multidimensional science demands a holistic approach. Finally, if this message is to be heard, geographers will need to put more effort into translating their professional discourse into that of nongeographers. The key is to change the prevailing “folk model” of geography held by nongeographers as a means to render the geographic project more intellectually coherent and institutionally legitimate.     

Social Network Analysis of the Academic GIScience Community

There is mounting interest among scientists regarding the use of scientometric social network analysis, or quantitative analysis of the evolution of science as defined by individual researchers and the networks they form. Given that geographers have seldom used this approach compared to researchers in other fields, its implications for research and policy need to be assessed. We applied scientometric social network analysis to geographic information science (GIScience) to understand how the field has evolved over the last sixteen years and to assess the applicability of the standard logistic model of the growth of scientific disciplines. In particular, we examined collaboration in the field at multiple scales, namely, the evolution of the entire research network structure, the nature of subnetworks in defining geographic information science, and the roles individuals play within the community. By delineating how collaborations and research networks have evolved in GIScience, the study addresses the potential of scientometric social network analysis for geography.     

SOIL SURVEYS AND TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS TO BE USED WITH SAMPLE AREAS DEPICTED IN THE LOOK OF OUR LAND—AN AIRPHOTO ATLAS OF THE RURAL UNITED STATES

Considering the influence of German geography on the historic development of the discipline in North America, surprisingly little communication takes place between German-speaking and English-speaking geographers today. This report is intended to provide readers of THE PROFESSIONAL GEOGRAPHER with a review of recent events in the German-speaking countries of Europe, giving special attention to ways in which ideological differences have influenced geographic research in the two parts of divided Germany. It also traces the emergence of theoretical-quantitative geography in German research, the rise of applied research, and recent trends in regional geography.     

从地缘关系视角解析“一带一路”的行动路径

“一带一路”倡议是人类历史上最伟大的全球治理工程,开辟了政治地理学研究的新纪元,为地缘关系研究提供了大舞台。地理学是从时间、空间和自然—社会系统三个维度理解陆地表层过程的科学,对地缘关系研究具有独特的功能和作用。因此,从地理学视角研究地缘关系具有其他学科无法比拟的优势。“一带一路”是当前最具挑战的科学和政策命题,从地缘关系视角研究“一带一路”,需要加强四个方面的结合：① 在科学思维上,需要还原论与系统论思维相结合;② 在科学数据建设上,需要社会人文与自然环境数据相结合;③ 在科学问题选择上,需要社会过程、人文过程、政治过程和自然过程相结合;④ 在研究方法上,需要经验方法、实证方法、系统方法与大数据研究方法相结合。中国地理学者应兼顾政治地理学科建设、地缘关系的学科交叉研究和“一带一路”全球实践开展研究。     

Digital Data-Centric Geography: Implications for Geography's Frontier

The debate regarding geographic information systems (GIS) as tool, toolbox, or science still lingers in geography departments and among geographers. Analysis of geographic information is a vital component of decision making among business, governments, researchers, and academics. GIS users, geographers and nongeographers alike, use and benefit from problem-solving methods in numerous fields and contexts, making the use of GIS and the core competencies associated with using GIS a topic of intense debate. Complicating this ongoing discussion is the rise of data-centric approaches to research in geography that further expand the capabilities of spatial analysis and add to the expected knowledge of a GIS user and analyst. Building on a panel discussion at the 2016 American Association of Geographers (AAG) annual meeting, as well as informal dialogues on Twitter and other social media platforms that navigate this issue in academics and industry, this article explores how skills in research computing and programming operate in geography and GIS, especially given the rise of data-centric approaches to research in these realms. Some topics, like the costs and benefits of open and closed source software, are familiar from previous discussions in geography and GIS. Others, though, like the reward structures and recognition for computing skills or programming ability, have not been widely considered given the current landscape.     

THE IMPACT OF POLITICAL SYSTEMS UPON GEOGRAPHY: THE CASE OF THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY AND THE GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC

Considering the influence of German geography on the historic development of the discipline in North America, surprisingly little communication takes place between German-speaking and English-speaking geographers today. This report is intended to provide readers of THE PROFESSIONAL GEOGRAPHER with a review of recent events in the German-speaking countries of Europe, giving special attention to ways in which ideological differences have influenced geographic research in the two parts of divided Germany. It also traces the emergence of theoretical-quantitative geography in German research, the rise of applied research, and recent trends in regional geography.     

Getting to the Bottom of It: Tools,Techniques, and Discoveries of Deep Ocean Geography

The initial impetus for developing a specialty in ocean geography resulted from the need to resolve applied problems in coastal resources, as opposed to development of oceanographic research methods and concepts. However, the development in the last 10 to 20 years of sophisticated technologies for ocean data collection and management holds tremendous potential for mapping and interpreting the ocean environment in unprecedented detail. With the understanding that ocean research is often very costly, yet deemed extremely important by large funding agencies, geographers now have the opportunity to perform coastal and marine studies that are more quantitative in nature, to formulate and test basic hypotheses about the marine environment, and to collaborate with geographers working in corollary subdisciplines (e.g., remote sensing, GIS, geomorphology, political geography as pertaining to the Law of the Sea, etc.), as well as with classically-trained oceanographers. This article reviews, for the non-specialist, the newest advances in mapping and management technologies for undersea geographic research (particularly on the ocean floor) and discusses the contributions that geographers stand to make to a greater understanding of the oceans.     

葛德石与中国近代地理学

中国近代地理学是中西方学术共同作用的结果,葛德石是中国近代地理学史上一位不可忽视的西方学者.他在中国的主要活动包括:通过在上海沪江大学创建地质地理系,为中国培养一定的地学人才:他进行了广泛而深入的中国地理考察,并纠正许多中国地理文本上的错误:他的中国地理研究与著述深化了中国地理的认识,并传播了中国地理知识.与此同时,葛德石与中国地理学界的广泛交往,进一步推动了中国地理学的近代化与国际化,而葛德石在中国的活动在一定程度上也反映了中国近代地理学的发展轨迹.     

科学地理学的理论基础及其研究内容与学科性质

在科学与技术是不同的知识形态,科学史研究的地理思潮转向,地理学向“软”的一面转向并关注社会,科学史研究的地理思潮倾向于关注“社会→地理→科学”关系的历史解释,地理学家在科学史的地理解释思想上的贡献等理论基础上,拙文主要阐述科学地理学这一新学科在建构“科学—地理—社会”关系体系上的独特性:①建构关注过去的、现在的及未来的“社会→地理→科学”关系;②践行“以任务带动学科”和“任务学科并重”的地理学发展方略,主要建构“科学→地理→社会”关系;③聚焦于科学活动因素的区域性,注重区域相关性分析方法论。基于这种独特性和地理学方法论精髓,科学地理学研究的内容体系包括:①科学研究及其组织与传播的时空结构;②科学研究及其组织与传播的时空结构与地理环境、经济、技术、社会、文化等结构要素的时空结构及其相互关系;③科学研究及其组织与传播对自然景观、社会景观、文化景观等的影响;④科学研究及其组织与传播对“人地关系地域系统”演进的影响。科学地理学的理论基础、建构“科学—地理—社会”关系的独特性和研究内容决定了科学地理学的交叉性、综合性和区域性,这与地理学特征是一致的,促进着现代地理学微观上的“深”化发展和宏观上的“综合”发展。     

人文-经济地理学的方法论及其特点

论述了人文-经济地理学的基本方法论和人-地系统的特征,倡导开展"人-地系统动力学研究".阐明人文-经济地理学学科的方法论及其特点,将有利于这门学科理论体系的发展和研究水平的提高,也有助于学术界特别是自然科学范畴内对人文-经济地理学及可持续发展研究在资源环境研究中的地位逐步形成共识,促进地球表层领域内资源-环境(包括生态...     

中国地理学会与《地理学报》的发展

中国地理学会前身是1909年在天津成立的中国地学会。1934年3月中国地理学会的成立与同年9月《地理学报》的创办,不仅是中国地理学科史上的大事,也是中国教育史乃至科学史上的亮点。这是新文化运动中所提倡“赛先生”,即科学观念不断在近代中国传播的重要节点。中国地理学会的成立,清晰地将近代地理学与传统舆地学分离开来,以独立学科的形态出现在中国历史舞台上。《地理学报》的创刊,则使中外地理学家们在中国开始享有高水准的专业学术窗口。这是中国地理学界仁人志士对“科学救国”“科技兴国”等思潮的实践。在中国地理学会的组织和推动下,老一代地理学家艰苦奋斗,将一系列重要的研究成果刊登在《地理学报》,中国地理学家在当时的国家顶层设计中占有了一席之地。虽然,当时对地理科学的重要性认知还主要停留在权力高层与专业学术圈内,但为后来中国地理科学的蓬勃发展播下了火种,也为唤醒普通民众的地理科学意识打下了坚实的科学基础。回顾历史,中国地理学会的成立与《地理学报》的创办可谓是中国地理科学的发轫,自此成为中国地理科学发展的推动者和见证者。值此中国地理学会创立110周年、《地理学报》创刊85周年之际,深入领会“不忘初心、牢记使命”,回顾中国地理学会与《地理学报》发展,以继承和发扬老一辈地理学家的精神,进一步推动地理科学发展,使之成为可持续发展的基础学科,更好地服务于国家建设,服务于人类命运共同体建设。     

COLONIAL EXPERIENCE AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF TROPICAL GEOGRAPHY IN FRANCE

This article broadly positions the successful establishment of the field of French tropical geography in the immediate postwar period against developments stemming from a longer history of French colonial engagement in Africa, Asia and South America, and clarifies the seemingly late timing of, and paradoxes involved in, the creation of a body of French scientific knowledge about the tropics. Colonial scientific research did not develop in France until the end of the nineteenth century. However, the colonial geography appearing at this time did not rely on fieldwork but, rather, catered to the demands of the business class for overseas expansion and to public curiosity. Even while the medical geography of tropical areas and knowledge of tropical soils and ecology progressed greatly between 1900 and 1940, there were still only a few French geographers working in the tropics. With the advent of the Second World War, when “big science” appeared in France and its colonial empire, the number of French geographers involved in tropical research grew rapidly. The field of tropical geography built up by Pierre Gourou was a synthesis of approaches developed in South America, Africa and Indochina. Although it soon came under strong criticism for its pessimistic view of prospects for industrialisation and urbanisation in the tropics, it seduced French geographers because it matched the contemporary interest in zonality and relied on a genre de vie analysis of, typically, rural areas. Thus, the postwar blossoming of tropical geography shaped by Gourou was more a response to various internal dynamics within French geography than an exercise in imperialism. Its demise was not due to the eclipse of French colonialism but, rather, its inability to deal with the modernisation of tropical societies.