PROCESS AND FORM RELATIONSHIPS: AN EXAMPLE FROM HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY

Relationships between process and form are complex. Historical geographers concerned with the evolution of form may profitably investigate such relationships by analyzing both real processes and various counterfactual processes. Simulation is an appropriate method. For Southern Ontario two dissimilar settlement processes are used to generate settlement forms during the period 1782 to 1851. The resulting forms are initially different, but they converge through time and by 1851 have become similar. Different processes can generate similar forms although form evolution is not similar.     

A Proposed Modification Of Koppen To Incorporate Seasonal Precipitation

Abstract

This paper discusses the impact of Hutterian migration to Alberta in regards to the Communal Property Act and the evolution of the Hutterian settlement pattern. The Hutterites arrived in Alberta in 1918 and by 1940 had established thirty-one colonies, clustered primarily in the Lethbridge area. The sect's political and economic beliefs have been unpopular. Legislative action in the form of the Communal Property Act, and the establishment of the Communal Property Control Board has resulted in a dispersed settlement pattern. The legislative action initiated in the 1940s has had the perverse function of causing a hardship on the individual farmer of southern Alberta.     

居住形态分异视角下乡村聚落格局的演化机制

系统探究不同地域乡村聚落的演化机制是构建乡村聚落转型实践逻辑和理论体系的基础。居住形态是涵盖居住空间形态、生活形态和文化形态的综合概念,立足居住形态视角有望揭示乡村聚落格局演化机制及其地域差异的深层逻辑。本文遵循“现象描述—机制分析—典型区对比”的思路,以乡村聚落地域分异为切入点,从“人-地”和“人-人”关系视角探究了人类发展进程中乡村聚落格局演化的一般规律,据此构建居住形态的形成及其对乡村聚落格局演化的作用机制,并以散居和聚居形态主导的样区为对照进行实证研究。研究表明,居住形态是衍生于宏观乡村聚落格局演化过程的多尺度、多维性因子,二者均可从“人-地”关系和“人-人”关系双重视角进行阐释;居住文化形态具有较强的传承性,为乡村聚落格局演化提供了路径遵循和内生机制,乡村聚落格局可视为居住文化形态在乡村地域空间解译和扩散的结果;生产力进步与偶发性事件可导致居住形态发生变革,从而诱发乡村聚落格局演化机制的改变。面向乡村振兴战略,需重视居住形态的研究视角,系统探讨不同地域传统乡村聚落的运行机制、城镇化阶段的演化机制以及乡村振兴背景下治理策略的本质差异,为制定差异化的村落振兴方案提供参考。     

A Teaching Model of Network Diffusion: the Taiwan Example

Abstract

Inquiry-discovery learning of processes involved in determining transportation patterns form the core of this teaching model. To develop the exercise, a generalized model of route network growth is presented, followed by explanatory models of causation and theory formulation. These suggest hypotheses which are then tested against a real-world example, the evolution of the road network in Taiwan. The model promotes understanding of human behavior and geographic change through systematic scientific inquiry and cross-national application. It is sufficiently general for use at several teaching levels.     

Experiencing Blues at the Crossroads: A Place-Based Method for Teaching the Geography of Blues Culture

Abstract

This article offers a pedagogical module that explores the geography of blues culture across the Mississippi Delta. By focusing on blues culture, rather than simply blues music itself, this project provides a forum for understanding the broader geographical conditions from which this musical form emerged. This module utilizes place-based methodologies and musical expressions as lenses to understand the influences that migration and cultural diffusion have had on the evolution of Delta blues. The impacts these processes had on diffusing African cultural legacies and setting the stage for the evolution of the civil rights movement are considered.     

Interpretation of Specialized Agricultural Settlements on Topographic Maps

Abstract

The topographic map can successfully supplement the geographical textbook and the field trip in aiding the teacher in the illustration of the cultural character of a place. Interpretation of cultural features on topographic maps requires a knowledge of map symbolization and some familiarity with the area or topic under study. An example of the type of cultural features that are well-illustrated by topographic maps is specialized agricultural settlement such as the gentleman horse farm. The student can formulate an interpretation key of the characteristic features of each settlement type. This will allow the successful interpretation of maps from distant or unfamiliar areas through comparison and even allow the map reader to “travel,” although vicariously, to distant areas.     

Ethnic Settlements on Topographic Maps

Abstract

The large scale topographic map can be a valuable medium for the pedagogic study of cultural geography, as a documentary source for research, or as a supplement to field work. Ethnic settlements, by way of illustration, are distinct cultural features on the landscape and can be located on topographic maps through the compilation of settlement form interpretation keys or place-name indexes, and the study of ethnic history. With this information as a base, it is possible to develop an interpretation logic that will allow the location and identification of ethnic groups on topographic maps.     

Senglaciala ackumulationsformer och glaciationsförhållanden i Narvik — Skjomenområdet,Norge

Abstract:

DAHL, RAGNAR. Late-glacial accumulation forms and glaciation in the Narvik-Skjomen district, Norway. Norsk geogr. Tidsskr. 1967, 21, 157–241.

Late-glacial accumulation forms at corresponding levels are described and discussed. Most of the accumulations are moraine ridges deposited at the lateral margins of the ice flowing in the main valleys or at the lateral and frontal margins of ice tongues branching out into tributaries.

The frontal moraine ridges appear only in small tributary valleys or similar depressions in the terrain. They have an arched form and an advanced position in the depressions and are broken by melt-water channels. Together with the different indications of pressure in the material, this shows that the moraines correspond to phases of the deglaciation period in which the ice masses were temporarily advancing. The calculated gradients of the ice surface and radio-carbon datings indicate that these phases correspond to the two glacial phases of the Tromsø-Lyngen substage, which, according to ANDERSEN (1965), approximately correspond to the Early Dryas and Late Dryas periods.     

Illustrative Materials for Geography

Abstract

Studies dealing with characteristics of housing and settlement have been based almost entirely on field observation or aerial photographs. However, this report uses information from the Department of Census and Statistics of Ceylon to plot the distribution of dwellings with specific construction material characteristics for Ceylon, thus indicating an aspect of rural housing characteristics and settlement. Use of dwelling construction materials such as mud, clay, stone, brick, cadjan, and thatch can be related to physical characteristics of the area involved, availability of building materials, and level of living and culture of the inhabitants. Cost of construction material must also be considered. If similar housing data, but more complete and of greater scope, were available from the census of every nation, much could be achieved rapidly in the geography of settlement.     

Geohistorical Archaeology: A Perspective for Considering the Historic Past

Abstract

The term geohistorical archaeology was adopted to describe the combination of the techniques and concepts of historical geography, historical archaeology, and history. It is suggested that the field offers the potential of enhanced research and instruction as it pertains to the early historical settlement of an area. Particular emphasis is placed on the use of site material culture as a key to site locations and the period and nature of their use. The basic techniques involved are reviewed, as is the possibility of incorporating classroom units and field projects on local historical settlement at the secondary level.     

The Effects of Informal Settlement on Suburban Property Values in Cape Town,South Africa

During the late 1980s some informal settlements were established within or near affluent Cape Town suburbs. Despite objections by suburban residents that these settlements would lead to a rapid escalation in crime and a dramatic fall in the value of properties, the authorities allowed the settlements to remain. Using data on property transfers, which are then mapped using GIS, the paper examines the effects that the informal settlement of Marconi Beam had on house prices and housing turnover within the adjacent suburb of Milnerton. The results show that most of the objections regarding Marconi Beam's effect on property values were groundless as the settlement had only a negligible effect on property values in the adjacent suburb.     

Overview and progress of Chinese geographical human settlement research

Increasing Chinese urbanization and industrialization has prompted greater attention to the study of human settlement and the human-land relationship in the fields of geography, architecture, and urban planning. We used bibliometric methods and statistical software to review 180 articles on human settlement in 16 Chinese geographical journals. We found that Chinese geographical human settlement research is characterized by the following: (1) Most research focuses on human settlement extension, valuation indicators, models for urban and rural settlements, theoretical exploration and the planning practices of single-factor, human settlement and complex, geographical livability in macro-scale, urban settlement differentiation and ideal patterns in medium scale, the comprehensive evaluation of settlement environment, and the planning of community units in micro-scale, community settlements; socio-cultural investigation and warnings about advancing human settlement. (2) No progress has been made in synthesizing and integrating method systems. PSR models and DPSIR models are used for targeting mechanisms, while the standard settlement evaluation system was composed of physical & economic indicators by questionnaire surveys. On the other hand, spatial clustering based on GIS has been a frequent focus in recent years. Pioneering research on human settlement and theoretical systems within the context of China’s urbanization and industrialization will provide guidance on the sustainability of Chinese cities and regions. The following five aspects require greater attention: (1) Natural suitability research on human settlement, and a survey of human settlement demands to reflect the range of different demands concerning ecologically suitable settlements in urban environments, the corresponding valuation indicators, systems, and evolution, and the impact of the residents’ socio-economic attributes. (2) Spatial-temporal evaluation and sustainability research on urban and rural human settlement at various scales, focusing on evolution and spatial differentiation at various scales such as city clusters and comparisons between cities, within the cities and communities. (3) Development of theory and technology for human settlement evolution research, including detection technology and methods, data mining measures, and forecasting and emulation of regional and urban human settlement evolution processes, mechanisms and patterns. (4) Research on the control of human settlement that focuses on optimization, patterns, and policies for effective management and development. (5) Estimating the human settlement system service value and establishing suitable human settlement systems, including social, economic, cultural and ecological service values.     

NEW APPROACHES TO DELINEATING METROPOLITAN AND NONMETROPOLITAN SETTLEMENT: GEOGRAPHERS DRAWING THE LINE

The federal government's Office of Management and Budget, with staff support from the Census Bureau's Population Division, is responsible for maintaining the statistical standard that provides criteria used to define metropolitan settlement and that delineates individual metropolitan areas for use in federal statistics. Review of the current standard, which dates from 1990, is now under way in conjunction with the 2000 census. Reviews of the emergence of the metropolitan form of settlement in the United States and of previous geospatial units representing metropolitan settlement are provided. A framework of geospatial units to represent the various elements of settlement at the close of the 20th century, including metropolitan and nonmetropolitan forms, is offered. Three papers that provide new approaches to delineating metropolitan and nonmetropolitan settlement in the United States are introduced. [Keywords: metropolitan and nonmetropolitan settlement, geospatial units of analysis, federal government, statistics.]     

Classroom Questioning for Geography Teachers

Abstract

Questioning is an important teaching skill. Teachers should be able to ask ‘thinking’ questions as well as ‘memory’ questions and they should be able to ask questions about ideas as well as facts. To assist teachers with development of their questioning skills, two dimensions of a question — the intellectual processes involved in answering it and the form of knowledge constituting the content — are reviewed. The dimensions are then combined into a matrix illustrating thirteen types of cognitive questions.     

Exploring the future of rural–urban connections in sub-Saharan Africa: modelling urban expansion and its impact on food production in the Addis Ababa region

Abstract

The built-up area of Addis Ababa and its surrounding towns is expanding into the peri-urban region leading to high losses of farmland, directly influencing the food production for the urban population. This paper investigates the patterns of settlement growth in the region surrounding Addis Ababa and their impact on peri-urban agriculture using an urban spatial scenario design model. The effects of two population density scenarios are explored within the framework of a proposed master plan. The model output was used to estimate areas of different suitability levels that would be lost to the modelled settlement expansion. The settlement area in 2038 would represent 29% of the case study’s total area in the low-density scenario but only 19% in the high-density scenario. Compared to the low-density scenario, the high-density scenario would only require a third of the agricultural land transformed into settlement areas. Settlement development would contribute to higher losses of land suitable for cultivating important export products, high nutritional value and import-substituting products. The scenario approach can support sustainable regional planning for settlement expansion that conserves valuable farmland in the peri-urban area and contributes to building capacity for strategic planning of the city regions of sub-Saharan Africa.     

海南岛西海岸沙丘形成动力过程的风洞模拟试验

The western coast of Hainan Island exhibits a savanna landscape. Many types of sand dunes, including transverse dune ridges, longitudinal dune ridges, elliptical dunes, coppice dunes, and climbing dunes, are widely distributed in the coastal zone. In winter, high-frequency and high-energy NE winds (dominant winds) are prevalent, with a resultant drift direction (RDD) of S35.6°W. In spring, low-frequency and low-energy SW secondary winds prevail, with a RDD of N25.1°E. Wind tunnel simulations revealed that the airflow over the dune surface is the main factor controlling the erosion and deposition patterns of dune surfaces and the morphological development of dunes. In the region’s bidirectional wind en- vironment, with two seasonally distinct energy levels, the airflow over the surface of elliptical dunes, barchan dunes, and transverse dune ridges will exhibit a transverse pattern, whereas the airflow over longitudinal dunes ridges exhibits a lateral pattern and that over climbing dunes exhibits a climbing-circumfluent pattern. These patterns represent different dynamic processes. The coastal dunes on the western coast of Hainan Island are influenced by factors such as onshore winds, sand sources, coastal slopes, rivers, and forest shelter belts. The source of the sand that supplements these dunes particularly influences the development pattern: when there is more sand, the pattern shows positive equilibrium deposition between dune ridges and dunes; otherwise, it shows negative equilibrium deposition. The presence or absence of forest shelter belts also influences deposition and dune development patterns and transformation of dune forms. Coastal dunes and inland desert dunes experience similar dynamic processes, but the former have more diversified shapes and more complex formation mechanisms.     

地理学视域中国人居环境研究回顾与进展（英文）

Increasing Chinese urbanization and industrialization has prompted greater attention to the study of human settlement and the human-land relationship in the fields of geography, architecture, and urban planning. We used bibliometric methods and statistical software to review 180 articles on human settlement in 16 Chinese geographical journals. We found that Chinese geographical human settlement research is characterized by the following:(1) Most research focuses on human settlement extension, valuation indicators, models for urban and rural settlements, theoretical exploration and the planning practices of single-factor, human settlement and complex, geographical livability in macro-scale, urban settlement differentiation and ideal patterns in medium scale, the comprehensive evaluation of settlement environment, and the planning of community units in micro-scale, community settlements; socio-cultural investigation and warnings about advancing human settlement.(2) No progress has been made in synthesizing and integrating method systems. PSR models and DPSIR models are used for targeting mechanisms, while the standard settlement evaluation system was composed of physical economic indicators by questionnaire surveys. On the other hand, spatial clustering based on GIS has been a frequent focus in recent years. Pioneering research on human settlement and theoretical systems within the context of China's urbanization and industrialization will provide guidance on the sustainability of Chinese cities and regions. The following five aspects require greater attention:(1) Natural suitability research on human settlement, and a survey of human settlement demands to reflect the range of different demands concerning ecologically suitable settlements in urban environments, the corresponding valuation indicators, systems, and evolution, and the impact of the residents' socio-economic attributes.(2) Spatial-temporal evaluation and sustainability research on urban and rural human settlement at various scales, focusing on evolution and spatial differen-tiation at various scales such as city clusters and comparisons between cities, within the cities and communities.(3) Development of theory and technology for human settlement evolution research, including detection technology and methods, data mining measures, and forecasting and emulation of regional and urban human settlement evolution processes, mechanisms and patterns.(4) Research on the control of human settlement that focuses on optimization, patterns, and policies for effective management and development.(5) Estimating the human settlement system service value and establishing suitable human settlement systems, including social, economic, cultural and ecological service values.     

Calibrating cellular automata based on landscape metrics by using genetic algorithms

Landscape metrics have been widely used to characterize geographical patterns which are important for many geographical and ecological analyses. Cellular automata (CA) are attractive for simulating settlement development, landscape evolution, urban dynamics, and land-use changes. Although various methods have been developed to calibrate CA, landscape metrics have not been explicitly used to ensure the simulated pattern best fitted to the actual one. This article presents a pattern-calibrated method which is based on a number of landscape metrics for implementing CA by using genetic algorithms (GAs). A Pattern-calibrated GA–CA is proposed by incorporating percentage of landscape (PLAND), patch metric (LPI), and landscape division (D) into the fitness function of GA. The sensitivity analysis can allow the users to explore various combinations of weights and examine their effects. The comparison between Logistic- CA, Cell-calibrated GA–CA, and Pattern-calibrated GA–CA indicates that the last method can yield the best results for calibrating CA, according to both the training and validation data. For example, Logistic-CA has the average simulation error of 27.7%, but Pattern-calibrated GA–CA (the proposed method) can reduce this error to only 7.2% by using the training data set in 2003. The validation is further carried out by using new validation data in 2008 and additional landscape metrics (e.g., Landscape shape index, edge density, and aggregation index) which have not been incorporated for calibrating CA models. The comparison shows that this pattern-calibrated CA has better performance than the other two conventional models.     

Dynamic Inuit Social Strategies in Changing Environments: A Long-Term Perspective

Geografisk Tidsskrift—Danish Journal of Geography 110(2):215–225, 2010

This paper presents an overview of the International Polar Year (IPY) research programme Dynamic Inuit Social Strategies in Changing Environments: A Long-Term Perspective. For this project, research teams from six separate multi-year subprojects performed fieldwork across much of the Canadian Arctic. Fieldwork and analysis revolved around two primary processes critical to the understanding of Inuit history: first, is the migration from Alaska to the east by the earliest Inuit, known as ‘Thule’, an apparently rapid event which replaced populations of the earlier, and culturally very different Dorset tradition; second, is the transformation of Thule Inuit into their more diverse recent cultural forms, involving abandonment of some regions, combined with major changes in settlement patterns, artifact form, architecture, economy, and social organization. The ultimate goal of the project is to understand the variable roles of climate change and social structures on the culture change which can be observed during the past 800 years of Inuit history.     

The Influences of Various Factors and Interest Demands on Linpan Landscape Evolution in the Chengdu Plain: A Qualitative Study based on Oral Histories

Traditional rural homegarden agroforestry systems in the Chengdu Plain of China are often referred to as “Linpan” in Chinese, which integrates the landscape of ecological functions and human production activities. In recent years, due to the influences of urbanization and the aging population, the Linpan landscape has changed dramatically. Clarifying the factors which influence Linpan landscape evolution is a critical way to improve rural landscape renovation. Through oral history interviews, the deep-seated factors driving the evolution of the Linpan landscape form from 1949 to 2020 are explored using the grounded theory. The results show that in the process of Linpan landscape evolution, beneficiary groups, the material basis, and cultural characteristics are the prerequisites for changing the Linpan settlement landscape. The demand of production and life and government-led behavior are the two main influencing factors, and landscape change is the final result. The demand of production and life from the residents is the primary internal driving force of landscape change, while government-led behavior is the main external driving force of settlement development and evolution. The nature of the main driving forces behind the evolution of the Linpan landscape in the Chengdu Plain can be divided into three stages. (1) From 1949 to 1980, it was characterized as a balancing of government forces and social forces. (2) From 1981 to 1993, it was characterized by social forces suppressing government forces. (3) From 1994 to 2020, it was characterized as a stalemate between the government and social forces. From the perspective of the evolution of the Linpan settlement landscape, the traditional Linpan form and settlement layout have been unable to meet the new requirements of the rural social and economic transition period. They are facing the challenges of rural reconstruction and rural revitalization. In the future, village and town planning and the design of new settlements need to comprehensively consider the demands of different interest groups.