Map Use by Adults with Visual Impairments

In this paper we summarize five experiments that were designed to investigate how tactile maps contribute to the cognitive maps of people with visual impairments. In two experiments we demonstrated that tactile maps can contribute to peoples' ability to learn a route through an unfamiliar area. From the results of two further studies, we argue that compared to people with sight, people with visual impairments have greater difficulty encoding information from a map. We considered this directly in a fifth experiment by investigating how people with visual impairments search and learn a map. We found that they used less efficient strategies than people with sight. We conclude that tactile maps are an important source of geographical information when people need to learn about new environments, but we also point out that to benefit most from tactile maps people need to encode the map information as effectively as possible. As people with visual impairments do not always use the most appropriate encoding strategies we suggest that tactile map users might benefit from greater experience and training in map encoding strategies.     

A Review of “Environmental Modelling: An Introduction”

The purpose of this study is to answer several important questions concerning the learning of categories of geographic information from maps. Categorization is a fundamental part of both learning and communication, and learning and communication are, in turn, central to any field of study. If categorization is a fundamental part of the learning process, then how people categorize information learned from maps must be of concern to cartographers and geographers. This study examines map reader categorization by having subjects in an experimental situation learn categories of maps. The primary variables in this study are the coherence of the categories and the duration of exposure to the categories. It was found that coherent categories cause subjects to rely on prior knowledge. The ability to use prior knowledge allows subjects to learn categories quickly, but it also causes them to make inaccurate assumptions about the category membership. This finding was not altered when subjects were given longer exposures to the category membership.     

Tasks,Strategies, and Cognitive Processes Associated With Navigational Map Reading: A Review Perspective*

All geographers use and may create maps in their professional activities. While perceived by some as merely tools to present spatial information, maps are actually complicated communication mechanisms. Many geographers spend tremendous amounts of time learning about verbal and written communication (how to speak, listen, read critically, and write effectively). But to many, one of the basic tools of geographic communication, the map, is a general source of unknown. Many previous papers have focused on how to create effective maps; this paper focuses on how people read and use navigation maps. Everyone completes map‐reading tasks, uses (often different) strategies, and processes information through cognitive processing. Geographers may benefit from understanding how they, as well as their map‐viewing public, process the information contained on their maps. This paper addresses terms and issues addressed in navigational map reading, specifically including tasks and strategies as well as the governing cognitive processes.     

Tactile-map output from geographical information systems: the challenge and its importance

Abstract

The incorporation of the technology of geographic information systems (GIS) into a wide range of planning decisions makes it important that the visually handicapped have access to GIS-based map products to participate more fully in community decision making. Fortunately, GIS contain many procedures useful to the design of tactile maps, including changes of scale and simplification. Developing research opportunities are outlined within the context of the general problem. Tactile maps using microcapsule paper can be produced quickly, but they must be tested using visually handicapped subjects to ensure that suitable symbolization and specifications are developed.     

Personalizing map content to improve task completion efficiency

Significant interaction challenges arise in both developing and using interactive map applications. Users encounter problems of information overload in using interactive maps to complete tasks. This is further exacerbated by device limitations and interaction constraints in increasingly popular mobile platforms. Application developers must then address restrictions related to screen size and limited bandwidth in order to effectively display maps on mobile devices. In order to address issues of user information overload and application efficiency in interactive map applications, we have developed a novel approach for delivering personalized vector maps. Ongoing task interactions between users and maps are monitored and captured implicitly in order to infer individual and group preferences related to specific map feature content. Personalized interactive maps that contain spatial feature content tailored specifically to users' individual preferences are then generated. Our approach addresses spatial information overload by providing only the map information necessary and sufficient to suit user interaction preferences, thus simplifying the completion of tasks performed with interactive maps. In turn, tailoring map content to specific user preferences considerably reduces the size of vector data sets necessary to transmit and render maps on mobile devices. We have developed a geographic information system prototype, MAPPER (MAP PERsonalization), that implements our approach. Experimental evaluations show that the use of personalized maps helps users complete their tasks more efficiently and can reduce information overload.     

I.G.U. Commission on Rural Development,Sub-commission on Rural Development in Highlands and High-Altitude Zones

Theories which explain mental imagery are discussed and are related to cognitive maps. An experiment was conducted to illustrate that people can code information about maps as visual images and use map images for a map-reading task. Subjects were shown maps which were rotated at various angles from north-at-the-top. The time needed to decide if a map was a correct or mirror representation was recorded. The results support the notion that people did this task by forming and rotating map images.     

IMAGES OF MAPS: A ROTATION EXPERIMENT*

Theories which explain mental imagery are discussed and are related to cognitive maps. An experiment was conducted to illustrate that people can code information about maps as visual images and use map images for a map-reading task. Subjects were shown maps which were rotated at various angles from north-at-the-top. The time needed to decide if a map was a correct or mirror representation was recorded. The results support the notion that people did this task by forming and rotating map images.     

The Use of Environmental Features on Tactile Maps by Navigators Who Are Blind

Maps designed for and used by sighted audiences benefit from map symbol standardization and convention but, with very limited exception (most notably two European projects), neither standardization nor convention guides the design and use of symbols for tactile maps. In this project, we developed and field tested symbolization for and use of tactile street maps. The development process included consultation with the literature as well as with field experts (orientation and mobility teachers, Braillists, and teachers working with students who are blind or have low vision). Following development, we undertook a three-year field testing and validation phase, in which we conducted pilot testing and formal testing with travelers who are blind or have low vision. Research results reveal not only a discriminable and useful tactile symbol set but also environmental feature use by travelers who are blind or have low vision.     

A Commentary on the Use of Touch for Accessing On‐Screen Spatial Representations: The Process of Experiencing Haptic Maps and Graphics

The growth of the Internet and the digital revolution have meant increased reliance on electronic representations of information. Geospatial information has been readily adapted to the world of cyberspace, and most Web pages incorporate graphics, images, or maps to represent spatial and spatialized data. But flat computer screens do not facilitate a map or graph experience by those who are visually impaired. The traditional method for compensating for nonvisual access to maps and graphics has been to construct hard‐copy tactile maps. In this article, we examine an electronic accommodation for nonvisual users—the haptic map. Using new and off‐the‐shelf hardware—force feedback and vibrotactile mice—we explore how touch can be combined with virtual representations of shapes and patterns to enable nonvisual access to onscreen map or graphic material.     

Newsprint Manufacturing in the Southeast

Abstract

This paper is a response to the two-fold thesis of Bartz; namely, that (1) maps are not really important in our society today, and (2) educators say that they value maps and mapping, but the evidence of children's performance in using maps is contradictory. In exploring problems related to Bartz's contention, the author arrives at four tentative conclusions :

1. A child can and does learn many but not all of the map concepts and skills at an earlier age when taught them developmentally, systematically, functionally, and effectively.

2. Mere manipulation of materials does not constitute a concrete experience for a child.

3. Map-related concepts must be taught prior to, and continued concurrently with, map skills.

4. The commercially prepared map tends to appear near the highest level of abstract mapping and is therefore not necessarily the most effective means of map instruction for the elementary teacher.

A most significant implication from the conclusions is the need to re-examine the preparation of the elementary teacher. If the focus of the education of a teacher moves in the direction outlined in this paper, Bartz's premise could be reversed.     

Beyond Abstract Map Symbols

Abstract

Crucial aspects of the referent phenomena which provide the subject matter for cartographic symbolism are often overlooked by map interpreters in their haste to “read maps at a glance.” The blame rests largely on those practitioners of the environmental sciences who stress the simple, intuitive nature of maps, while effectively ignoring the true complexity of the cartographic communication process. Those persons who are responsible for traditional map interpretation training programs are also at fault for implying, through long emphasis, that symbol identification, position location, and navigation constitute the essence of map analysis. The intuitive acceptability of map symbols in spite of their abstract character is also a deceptive factor. The fact that there is far “more than meets the eye” to map interpretation is easily demonstrated by looking closely at several basic cartographic symbols. In order to become an effective map user the environmental scientist apparently must go well beyond the mastery of conventional map reading principles and learn to deal with diverse informational dimensions in the context of the map use purpose and the physical/cultural make-up of the geographical region under study.     

Using Road Maps in the Junior High School

Abstract

The activities described in this paper were developed to familiarize junior high school students with the variety of information available on road maps and to provide a means for practice of map skills. At Legg Junior High School in Coldwater, Michigan, students were presented with an introduction to road maps, followed by a series of worksheets to use in conjunction with Michigan and Ontario highway maps. After completing the worksheets, students participated in road rally games which required them to use maps and follow instructions and clues to find a specific location. The activities can be adapted for elementary school classes or for students with different levels of ability. Teachers might also want to increase the number of worksheets or road rallies to give students additional practice in skills in which they particularly need improvement.     

Ventures into Viral Cartography: Waffle House,Educational Attainment,and the Social Life of Maps

Viral maps—ones that are shared widely on social media and media outlets—have become an increasingly common part of online conversations about a range of issues. Despite the increasing prevalence of these viral maps, only a few academic researchers have examined the factors leading to their popularity or their social use and effect. In this article, we analyze two case studies of viral maps, a viral tweet about the August 2017 total eclipse and an interactive tool for exploring educational attainment by neighborhood in the United States. By reflecting on our experience as authors of these maps and analyzing the reactions they elicited, we identify several key elements of these maps and their circulation. First, viral maps act as a form of phatic communication, allowing users to restate and react to shared social identities. Second, maps are read from specific times and places, and this spatiotemporal context significantly shapes the reactions of map readers. Finally, viral maps illustrate gaps or improvements in trust between mapmakers and map readers, including questions about map accuracy or the intentions behind the map. We close by considering implications for future research and viral cartography. Key Words: online maps, social networks, viral cartography.     

The Effects of Prior Knowledge on the Learning of Categories of Maps

The purpose of this study is to answer several important questions concerning the learning of categories of geographic information from maps. Categorization is a fundamental part of both learning and communication, and learning and communication are, in turn, central to any field of study. If categorization is a fundamental part of the learning process, then how people categorize information learned from maps must be of concern to cartographers and geographers. This study examines map reader categorization by having subjects in an experimental situation learn categories of maps. The primary variables in this study are the coherence of the categories and the duration of exposure to the categories. It was found that coherent categories cause subjects to rely on prior knowledge. The ability to use prior knowledge allows subjects to learn categories quickly, but it also causes them to make inaccurate assumptions about the category membership. This finding was not altered when subjects were given longer exposures to the category membership.     

Improvement of GIS graphics for analysis and decision-making

Abstract

Current geographical information systems (GIS) include functions to create cartographic output interactively or automatically. However, none of the systems presently incorporates mechanisms to ensure correct application of graphic functions. Many of today's users of GIS are not trained in the design and production of graphics and may create maps that confuse or mislead map users. Poorly-designed maps may obliterate the patterns in displayed information.

This article investigates ways to improve the quality of GIS graphical displays and increase their effectiveness for decision-making. Alternatives are presented for improving map design in GIS, ranging from non-technical efforts to enhancement of software functionality. Suggestions propose augmenting users' abilities to create maps in an automated environment, using an approach termed amplified intelligence: key decisions default explicitly to users, whose knowledge is amplified by a range of high-level tools to carry out map design operations automatically.     

Why Geography Still Needs Pen and Ink Cartography

Abstract

Maps are fundamental in geographic explanation and education, but as map-making becomes firmly entrenched in the GIS lab, it becomes harder for students to imagine how they can make maps for their papers. Students need to illustrate papers with maps: among other things, maps provide clarity, links to real places, and insights into patterns and context of phenomena discussed in student papers. A simple, quick, and aesthetically satisfying method for students to make their own maps is presented. This map making method can help students can think more creatively and geographically about their topics.     

Organization of Feature-, Time-, and Location-Based Mental Models

This study considers how mental models are encoded into memory by viewing visual displays like maps. A mental model is an internal representation of a situation that links objects or concepts to other objects or concepts. Previous studies indicated location-based mental models are encoded when a series of propositional statements such as the object is in the location are read from a text. Evidence that locations were being used as the basic container for an organization of mental models is provided by a significant fan effect. A fan effect shows an increase in reaction time with the number of models considered when making a decision. Features, times, and locations were considered as possible containers in the mental models. Subjects created location-based mental models, but also encoded feature-based mental models. A reverse fan effect for time, found for a map animation, suggested the order of the presentation of maps could greatly affect the structure of learned information.     

Same space – different perspectives: comparative analysis of geographic context through sketch maps and spatial video geonarratives

ABSTRACT

The importance of including a contextual underpinning to the spatial analysis of social data is gaining traction in the spatial science community. The challenge, though, is how to capture these data in a rigorous manner that is translational. One method that has shown promise in achieving this aim is the spatial video geonarrative (SVG), and in this paper we pose questions that advance the science of geonarratives through a case study of criminal ex-offenders. Eleven ex-offenders provided sketch maps and SVGs identifying high-crime areas of their community. Wordmapper software was used to map and classify the SVG content; its spatial filter extension was used for hot spot mapping with statistical significance tested using Monte Carlo simulations. Then, each subject’s sketch map and SVG were compared. Results reveal that SVGs consistently produce finer spatial-scale data and more locations of relevance than the sketch maps. SVGs also provide explanation of spatial-temporal processes and causal mechanisms linked to specific places, which are not evident in the sketch maps. SVG can be a rigorous translational method for collecting data on the geographic context of many phenomena. Therefore, this paper makes an important advance in understanding how environmentally immersive methods contribute to the understanding of geographic context.