CLIMATOLOGY: THE CHALLENGE FOR THE EIGHTIES

Geographical climatology must systematically investigate the exchanges of heat, water, and momentum that occur at or near the earth's surface. Our discipline should focus upon surface features described under the general term “topoclimatology”as well as upon transfer processes occurring in the planetary boundary layer. Climatologists must increase their understanding of the synergistic relationships among climatic processes, surface features, and human actions. Methods of data collection, summary, analysis, and display also need to be improved. These challenges must be met in order that we may develop a better understanding of climate and improve our quantitative climatic analogues.     

Geographic Graphics

Abstract

The diagrammatic climate key presented here was developed in an attempt to simplify the teaching of climate classification at the secondary and college levels. The chart emphasizes four critical temperatures involved in the Koppen classification, and shows their relationships to the various climate types. It is hoped that use of this key will give students a better understanding of the role of critical temperatures such as 64.4° or 71.6°, symbols such as Aw or BSk, and the overall scheme of climate classification. The chart has been developed for the Köppen climatic classification as modified by Ackerman and Van Royen and popularized by Trewartha.¹ Because the modified Koppen system is widely used and accepted, that system—along with Fahrenheit temperatures—will be utilized in the following discussion. Figure 1 represents the working skeleton, which may be drawn upon the chalkboard, presented by use of transparent overlay, or handed out on individual laboratory exercise sheets.     

Climatic and tectonic controls on the fluvial morphology of the Northeastern Tibetan Plateau (China)

The geomorphological evolution of the Northeastern Tibetan Plateau (NETP) could provide valuable information for reconstructing the tectonic movements of the region. And the considerable uplift and climatic changes at here, provide an opportunity for studying the impact of tectonic and monsoon climate on fluvial morphological development and sedimentary architecture of fluvial deposits. The development of peneplain-like surface and related landscape transition from basin filling to incision indicate an intense uplift event with morphological significance at around 10–17 Ma in the NETP. After that, incision into the peneplain was not continuous but a staircase of terraces, developed as a result of climatic influences. In spite of the generally persisting uplift of the whole region, the neighbouring tectonic blocks had different uplift rates, leading to a complicated fluvial response with accumulation terraces alternating with erosion terraces at a small spatial and temporal scale. The change in fluvial activity as a response to climatic impact is reflected in the general sedimentary sequence on the terraces from high-energy (braided) channel deposits (at full glacial) to lower-energy deposits of small channels (towards the end of the glacial), mostly separated by a rather sharp boundary from overlying flood-loams (at the glacial-interglacial transition) and overall soil formation (interglacial). Pronounced incision took place at the subsequent warm-cold transitions. In addition, it is hypothesized that in some strongly uplifted blocks energy thresholds could be crossed to allow terrace formation as a response to small climatic fluctuations (10³–10⁴ year timescale). Although studies of morpho-tectonic and geomorphological evolution of the NETP, improve understanding on the impacts of tectonic motions and monsoonal climate on fluvial processes, a number of aspects, such as the distribution and correlation of peneplain and the related morphological features, the extent and intensity of tectonic movements influencing the crossing of climatic thresholds, leading to terrace development, need to be studied further.     

Automated terrain feature identification from remote sensing imagery: a deep learning approach

ABSTRACT

Terrain feature detection is a fundamental task in terrain analysis and landscape scene interpretation. Discovering where a specific feature (i.e. sand dune, crater, etc.) is located and how it evolves over time is essential for understanding landform processes and their impacts on the environment, ecosystem, and human population. Traditional induction-based approaches are challenged by their inefficiency for generalizing diverse and complex terrain features as well as their performance for scalable processing of the massive geospatial data available. This paper presents a new deep learning (DL) approach to support automatic detection of terrain features from remotely sensed images. The novelty of this work lies in: (1) a terrain feature database containing 12,000 remotely sensed images (1,000 original images and 11,000 derived images from data augmentation) that supports data-driven model training and new discovery; (2) a DL-based object detection network empowered by ensemble learning and deep and deeper convolutional neural networks to achieve high-accuracy object detection; and (3) fine-tuning the model’s characteristics and behaviors to identify the best combination of hyperparameters and other network factors. The introduction of DL into geospatial applications is expected to contribute significantly to intelligent terrain analysis, landscape scene interpretation, and the maturation of spatial data science.     

Landscapes and Literature: A Look at the Early Twentieth Century Rural South

Abstract

This article examines samples of southern literature from the first half of the twentieth century that can be used to understand geographically the rural landscapes of the Coastal Plain from North Carolina through Mississippi. The socioeconomic imprint upon the land, climatic perceptions, and the role of the forest are themes addressed. The advantages and significance of using a literary approach are also discussed.     

A Review of “Route 66: Iconography of the American Highway”

Loblolly pines in Texas and Louisiana exhibit different reactions to moisture extremes, as indicated by the susceptibility of weakened individuals to attack by southern pine beetles. In Texas, intense insect outbreaks among pines occur during periods of extreme moisture surplus, whereas extreme moisture deficits render the Louisiana pines susceptible to attack. Intraspecies tree reponse to moisture extremes therefore appears to be spatially variable and partially dependent upon the frequency occurrence of severe climatic conditions.     

The Status of Geography in the Social Studies Curricula of Canadian Schools

Abstract

Successful curriculum development that will have impact upon individual American classrooms remains the key to maintaining the momentum of Geography for Life: National Geography Standards 1994. Teachers and students must be able to translate the national geography standards from the national stage to the local classroom setting to become geographically informed people. One example of this development for elementary urban geography is the Main Street lesson plan. It encourages observation and analysis required by Standard 4: The geographically informed student knows and understands the physical and human characteristics of places. After testing in a variety of Missouri classrooms, instructors thought that Main Street was a unique way of studying urban places and allowing students to gain a greater understanding of place.     

我国气候科学四十年来的蓬勃发展

我国于1912年在北京设立了中央观象台(包括天文与气象),但只限于气候观测,谈不到气候学的研究。我国气候学研究迄今可以说有两个转折点。一个转折点就是1928年在南京成立了中央研究院气象研究所,开始了气候学的研究。第二个转折点就是新中国成立后在南京大学气象系于1952年设立了气候专业。国际上的气候学发展在70年代确已从描述性进入定量性的阶段,发展了动力气候学与统计气候学数值模拟,并且向气候预报方向逐渐发展,尤其是统计预报发展更快。     

THE CONTENT OF RATZEL'S POLITISCHE GEOGRAPHIE

The concentration of poor, service-dependent groups in aging central cities results both from suburbanization of the affluent and from the reliance of the service-dependent population upon place-specific human services provided by the public sector. Such concentration of services and their users in deteriorating inner-city sites may be functional for the larger society, but it has adverse impacts upon those who are service dependent. This paper argues that the implications of locational interdependence between such groups and their support services demand a paradigm for urban geography that centers upon the fundamental structure and impacts of population/service-provision linkages.     

ON THE SENSITIVITY OF CONCLUSIONS ABOUT THE BASES OF COGNITIVE DISTANCE

The “ecological fallacy’ inherent in two studies of the correlation of cognitive distance with objective distance and travel time is considered. The studies reach opposite conclusions using similar types of data, but both involve different types of aggregation of cognitive-distance judgments. It is shown that, under certain circumstances, correlations based on aggregate data can lead to reverse conclusions to those based on more behaviorally valid disaggregate data. Hence such aggregation is unjustifiable and, as a result, neither study's conclusions can be relied upon.     

清江流域气候资源及其开发利用

论述了清江流域气候资源的独特性及其形成原因，为充分开发当地的气候资源，根据气象条件适宜、经济价值高和市场需求量大等指标，提出了重点开发项目；并针对清江河谷气候资源利用中的主要限制因素是冬季的低温冻害的特点，对利用气候资源的风险进行了分析。     

坡面流与坡面侵蚀动力过程研究的最新进展*

在回顾了坡面流及坡面侵蚀过程研究的简史与现状的基础之上,全面总结了坡面流形成机理及其模式、坡面流水动力学特性、坡面侵蚀动力过程及其侵蚀产沙模型诸方面研究的最新进展,并对坡面流各要素分析及坡面小侵蚀陡坎的形成等进行了一些探讨。最后,提出了坡面流及坡面侵蚀过程研究中存在的主要问题及未来展望。     

REPORT OF THE AAG DELEGATE TO THE CANADIAN ASSOCIATION OF GEOGRAPHERS

Formal program evaluation is one of the most widely used tools for program termination decisions in universities. By understanding and anticipating program evaluation, a farsighted geography department can convert it from a threat into a strategy for survival in the 1980s. In the process, many departments will be renewed and improved.     

The potential of GIS modelling of gravity flows and slope instabilities

Abstract

The component of gravitational acceleration parallel to the slope of the local surface partly determines the state of slope stability and the kinematics of flow under gravity on that slope. Geographical information systems based on digital elevation models offer the potential to be able to map this variable and permit the modelling of a variety of stability criteria and surface processes including landslides, rock avalanches, pyroclastic flows and lava flows. Three types of models and the basic map operations required to run them are discussed. The models are as follows: (i) sites of potential shallow slope failure (e.g. landslides), (ii) maps of flow deposition based on energy balance calculations (e.g. rock avalanches) and (iii) finite difference, initial value type simulations of dynamic flow (e.g. lava flows). The potential value of these models to hazard assessment is great but their application in specific cases must be assessed with reference to the accuracy of the digital elevation model used.     

THE POLITICIANS' DEMAND FOR A GEOGRAPHIC REDISTRIBUTION OF NSF FUNDS

Misunderstanding of phenomenology and positivism as perspectives upon the philosophy and practice of science has important implications for the future of geographic research and research funding in America. Positivistic perspectives on the philosophy of science appear to be seen as fundable, whereas the scientific status and the possibilities for funding of phenomenological and other perspectives on the philosophy of science seem to be in question.     

THE 'LITTLE ICE AGE': RE-EVALUATION OF AN EVOLVING CONCEPT

ABSTRACT. This review focuses on the development of the ‘Little Ice Age’ as a glaciological and climatic concept, and evaluates its current usefulness in the light of new data on the glacier and climatic variations of the last millennium and of the Holocene. ‘Little Ice Age’ glacierization occurred over about 650 years and can be defined most precisely in the European Alps (c. AD 1300–1950) when extended glaciers were larger than before or since. ‘Little Ice Age’ climate is defined as a shorter time interval of about 330 years (c. AD 1570–1900) when Northern Hemisphere summer temperatures (land areas north of 20°N) fell significantly below the AD 1961–1990 mean. This climatic definition overlaps the times when the Alpine glaciers attained their latest two highstands (AD 1650 and 1850). It is emphasized, however, that ‘Little Ice Age’ glacierization was highly dependent on winter precipitation and that ‘Little Ice Age’ climate was not simply a matter of summer temperatures. Both the glacier‐centred and the climate‐centred concepts necessarily encompass considerable spatial and temporal variability, which are investigated using maps of mean summer temperature variations over the Northern Hemisphere at 30‐year intervals from AD 1571 to 1900. ‘Little Ice Age’‐type events occurred earlier in the Holocene as exemplified by at least seven glacier expansion episodes that have been identified in southern Norway. Such events provide a broader context and renewed relevance for the ‘Little Ice Age’, which may be viewed as a ‘modern analogue’ for the earlier events; and the likelihood that similar events will occur in the future has implications for climatic change in the twenty‐first century. It is concluded that the concept of a ‘Little Ice Age’ will remain useful only by (1) continuing to incorporate the temporal and spatial complexities of glacier and climatic variations as they become better known, and (2) by reflecting improved understanding of the Earth‐atmosphere‐ocean system and its forcing factors through the interaction of palaeoclimatic reconstruction with climate modelling.     

THE MOST PERFECT EXAMPLE OF AN ALIEN ECOLOGY EVER CONSTRUCTED

Much science-fiction literature is based upon the creation and exploration of alternative environments. Stanley G. Weinbaum's short story, “Parasite Planet,”introduces an unusual environment that may be wrong in the light of recent evidence on Venus but still stimulates the geographical imagination.     

Some Aspects of Winter Climatology and the Energy Crisis

Abstract

The potentially severe strain that subnormal winter temperatures would impose upon reduced heating fuel supplies prompted publication of a long-range, national, winter weather forecast in November 1973. However, limitation of the art of weather forecasting that stem ultimately from the complex episodic nature of weather behavior diminish the reliability of this outlook. In spite of the complexity encountered along the way, a journey into weather records of the past does reveal some observations about weather activity that are useful in assessing winter temperature prospects. These observations include the characteristic nonuniformity of weather behavior, the existence of long-range and seasonal climatic trends, and the thermal effects of early-season establishment of a heavy snow cover.     

Climatic Perception

Abstract

Climate plays a strategic role in man's perception of the environment. Man's perception of climate influences his adjustment to the atmospheric environment. This study examines the climatic desirability of the conterminous United States as perceived by in-state college students in North Carolina, Arizona, Minnesota and Vermont. Based on climatic preference, the home states are perceived to be the most desirable states in the conterminous United States. In general, the climatic conditions in those states which are in close geographical propinquity to the sample states are also appealing to the students. In addition, Florida, Colorado and the West Coast states (especially California) are perceived as climatically desirable.     

THE PATTERN OF PROPERTY-TAX EXEMPTIONS IN A METROPOLITAN FISCAL SETTING

The fiscal-disparities approach to understanding the fiscal problems of many older American central cities neglects the role of property-tax exemptions. This paper, grounded in the metropolitan fiscal setting of Onondaga County and Syracuse, New York, outlines an argument that emphasizes the link between property-tax exemptions, city age, and regional centrality. Central cities are seen as suffering from fiscal burdens imposed partly by their growth as regional centers. It is concluded that, when the financial problems of central cities are being examined, these cities should not be treated as fiscal equivalents to other metropolitan political units but that due regard should be given to their particular historical development.