Controls on supergene enrichment of porphyry copper deposits in the Central Andes: A review and discussion

The Central Andes host some of the world’s largest porphyry copper deposits. The economic viability of these deposits is dependent on the size and quality of their supergene enrichment blanket. Published models that have strongly influenced exploration policy suggest that supergene enrichment ceased at 14 Ma due to an increase in aridity. Here we discuss these models using published geochronological, geomorphological and geological data. Geochronological data indicate that supergene oxidation and enrichment has been active between 17 and 27°S across the forearc of northern Chile and southern Peru from 44 to 6 Ma, and on the Bolivian Altiplano and Eastern Cordillera of Argentina from 11 Ma to present. There is evidence for cessation at 20, 14 and 6 Ma. However, a major problem is that as more geochronological data become available the age ranges and periods of enrichment increase. This suggests that the full spectrum of enrichment ages may not have been sampled. The relationship between supergene enrichment and the age of regional pediplain surface development is not well constrained. Only in two areas have surfaces related to enrichment been directly dated (southern Peru and south of 26°S in Chile) and suggest formation post 14 Ma. Sedimentological data indicate that a fluctuating arid/semi-arid climate prevailed across the Atacama Desert until between 4 and 3 Ma, climatic conditions that are thought to be favourable for supergene enrichment. The balance between uplift, erosion, burial and sufficient water supply to promote enrichment is complex. This suggests that a simple model for controlling supergene enrichment is unlikely to be widely applicable in northern Chile. General models that involve climatic desiccation at 14 Ma related to rainshadow development and/or the presence of an ancestral cold-upwelling Humboldt Current are not supported by the available geological evidence. The integration of disparate sedimentological, geomorphological and supergene age data will be required to fully understand the controls on and distribution of supergene oxidation and enrichment in the Central Andes.     

Morphologic evolution of the Central Andes of Peru

In this paper, we analyze the morphology of the Andes of Peru and its evolution based on the geometry of river channels, their bedrock profiles, stream gradient indices and the relation between thrust faults and morphology. The rivers of the Pacific Basin incised Mesozoic sediments of the Marañon thrust belt, Cenozoic volcanics and the granitic rocks of the Coastal Batholith. They are mainly bedrock channels with convex upward shapes and show signs of active ongoing incision. The changes in lithology do not correlate with breaks in slope of the channels (or knick points) such that the high gradient indices (K) with values between 2,000–3,000 and higher than 3,000 suggest that incision is controlled by tectonic activity. Our analysis reveals that many of the ranges of the Western Cordillera were uplifted to the actual elevations where peaks reach to 6,000 m above sea level by thrusting along steeply dipping faults. We correlate this uplift with the Quechua Phase of Neogene age documented for the Subandean thrust belt. The rivers of the Amazonas Basin have steep slopes and high gradient indices of 2,000–3,000 and locally more than 3,000 in those segments where the rivers flow over the crystalline basement of the Eastern Cordillera affected by vertical faulting. Gradient indices decrease to 1,000–2,000 within the east-vergent thrust belt of the Subandean Zone. Here a correlation between breaks in river channel slopes and location of thrust faults can be established, suggesting that the young, Quechua Phase thrust faults of the Subandean thrust belt, which involve Neogene sediments, influenced the channel geometry. In the eastern lowlands, these rivers become meandering and flow parallel to anticlines that formed in the hanging wall of Quechua Phase thrust faults, suggesting that the river courses were actively displaced outward into the foreland.     

Critical sections in the Western Andes of Central Peru

Summary Seven valley-sections across the Pacific slopes of the Andes provide evidence interpreted as follows. Cretaceous and post-Senonian beds were folded, thrust and eroded before an immense pile of lava and ash about 60 miles across was erupted. A granitic batholith about 30 miles wide cut through them and the edge of the folded sediments. Erosion unroofed this batholith and then more lava and ash erupted whilst normal faulting proceeded with down throw towards the Pacific. Uplift of about 12 000 feet in rather recent time is called for to account for high Andean plateau. In brief folding due to compression ended. Vulcanicity, magmatic emplacement, faulting and vertical movement succeeded.

---

Zusammenfassung Die Profile in sieben die Westhänge der Anden querenden Tälern lassen folgenden Sachverhalt erkennen. Ablagerungen der Kreidezeit und der Zeit nach dem Senon wurden gefaltet, überschoben und erodiert, ehe die Eruption einer ungeheuren, über 100 km breiten Masse von Lava und Aschen erfolgte. Ein etwa 50 km breiter granitischer Batholith durchdrang die Vulkanite und den Rand der gefalteten Sedimentgesteine. Die Erosion entblößte diesen Batholithen, und dann wurden wiederum Lava und Aschen gefördert, während Abschiebungen, mit Absenkung des pazifischen Flügels, in Tätigkeit traten. Man muß mit Hebungen von etwa 4 km in ziemlich junger Zeit rechnen, um das Andenhochplateau erklären zu können. Kurz gesagt, die Faltung durch Einengung endete. Sie wurde abgelöst von Vulkanismus, Platznahme plutonischer Massen, Bruchtektonik und Vertikalbewegung.

     

A tertiary fold and thrust belt in the Valle del Cauca Basin, Colombian Andes

Surface geology and heophysical data, supplemented by regional structural interpretations, indicate that the Valle del Cauca basin and adjacent areas in west-central Colombia form a west-vergent, basement-involved fold and thrust belt. This belt is part of a Cenozoic orogen developed along the west side of the Romeral fault system. Structural analysis and geometrical constraints show that the Mesozoic ophiolitic basement and its Cenozoic sedimentary cover are involved in a “thick-skinned” west-vergent foreland style deformation. The rocks are transported and shortened by deeply rooted thrust faults and stacked in imbricate fashion. The faults have a NE---SW regional trend, are listric in shape, developed as splay faults which are interpreted as joining a common detachment at over 10 km depth. The faults carry Paleogene sedimentary strata and Cretaceous basement rocks westward over Miocene strata of the Valle del Cauca Basin. Fold axes trend parallel or sub parallel to the thrust faults. The folds are westwardly asymmetrical with parallel to kink geometry, and are interpreted to be fault-propagation folds stacked in an imbricate thrust system. Stratigraphic evidence suggests that the Valle del Cauca basin was deformed between Oligocene and upper Miocene time. The kinematic history outlined above is consistent with an oblique convergence between the Panama and South American plates during the Cenozoic.A negative residual Bouguer anomaly of 20–70 mgls in the central part of the Valle del Cauca basin indicates that a substantial volume of low density sedimentary rocks is concealed beneath the thrust sheets exposed at the land surface. The hydrocarbon potential of the Valle del Cauca should be reevaluated in light of the structural interpretations presented in this paper.     

中安第斯地区蒸发岩矿床成矿作用特征及构造背景

在中安第斯高原,包括玻利维亚西部、智利东部、阿根廷北部分布众多的盐湖,湖中含丰富的B、K、Li、Mg和其他蒸发盐类物质,封闭的盆地因蒸发作用使残留盐水中的成矿元素聚集并沉淀。这些矿床的形成与安第斯山的隆起和气侯变化关系密切。通过对该区蒸发岩型矿床的分布特征及成矿特征进行研究,讨论其形成的构造背景,分析成矿要素和找矿方向。     

Palaeomagnetism of Cretaceous carbonates from the northwestern part of the Dinaric fold belt

From the island of Cres and the fold belt north of autochthonous Istria 260 light-grey Cretaceous limestone samples were collected at 25 localities. Stepwise thermal demagnetization was employed to clean the remanence up to max. 525 °C. About two-thirds of the samples were successfully cleaned and the locality means were calculated from the characteristic remanences. The locality means significantly deviate from the present field direction both before and after tectonic correction: the mean inclination is about 15° lower than the present inclination and the declination is rotated counterclockwise i.e. it basically fits the pattern so far observed in the Periadriatic region.Unfolding barely influences the scatter of the directions (Cres: D = 308°, I = 45°, k = 26, α₉₅ = 13.3°, before tilt correction, and D = 330°, I = 48°, k = 33, α₉₅ = 11.9° after tilt correction; fold belt north of autochthonous Istria: D = 309°, I = 48°, k = 17, α₉₅ = 11.9°, before tilt correction, and D = 336°, I = 41°, k =13, α₉₅ = 14.0°, after tilt correction. In view of the inconclusive fold test, the magnetization cannot be dated precisely and thus does not yield sufficient information concerning possible relative movements between autochthonous Istria-Gargano and the fold belt studied. Nevertheless, the counterclockwise rotated declinations of the area studied are in contrast with the clockwise rotated declinations of the Ionian Zone of Western Greece. The large angular difference in declination between two parts of the Dalmatian-Ionian Zone with similar tectonic trends casts doubt on the continuity of the fold belt.     

The Earth''s crust in the northwestern part of the Pacific mobile belt

Results of seismic investigations in the transition zone from the Asian Continent to the Pacific Ocean are reported in detail. At the bottom of the sedimentary sequence presumably Cretaceous rocks are found in depressions of the sea floor. The “granitic” layer in the transition zone consists of igneous-sedimentary rocks in different stages of granitization. The “basaltic” layer is developed irregularly in thickness and seismic velocities; its origin is obscure. Apparently the earth's crust in the transition zone is still under formation.     

Age of terrigenous deposits of the Khingan Group in the Lesser Khingan terrane in the eastern part of the Central Asian fold belt

The results of investigations of gneissose hornblende granitoids, which intrude terrigenous deposits of the Murandav Formation of the Khingan Group and which were deformed together with them due to later structural transformations, are given. It is shown that by their geochemical properties these granitoids are comparable with granitoids of type I and are 535 ± 6 Ma old (U?Pb method on zircons). The obtained data indicate that dikes of hornblende granites, which intrude terrigenous rocks of the Murandav Formation of the Khingan Group and are deformed together with them, were embedded at the Cambrian and Ediacaran transition. The assumption that terrigenous deposits of the Khingan Group (at least the Murandav and underlying Igincha formations) were accumulated in the Neoproterozoic is supported.     

Magnetotelluric sounding in the Western Transbaikalia segment of the Central Asian fold belt

This paper presents the results of magnetotelluric (MT) studies performed within the Western Transbaikalia segment of the Central Asian fold belt along the Selenga River delta-Krasnyi Chikoi Village profile. The data are interpreted using the results of recent geological, petrological, geothermal, tectonic, and geochronological studies of the Mongolia-Transbaikalian part of the Central Asian fold belt, including large heterochronous igneous provinces and zones. The studies have shown that the investigated area has a complex geologic and tectonic structure produced by extensive rifting leading to the formation of large crustal blocks and by intense magmatic fluid activity along deep fault zones. The investigated profile is characterized by a combination of blocks with different types of geoelectric section—mountain ranges and intermontane basins separated by long-lived deep fault zones.     

Multivariate statistical analysis of some recent volcanics from the Central Andes of Southern Peru

The application of Principal Component and Discriminant analysis to the major and minor oxides of recent volcanics from the Central Andes (S-Peru, N-Chile, Bolivia and Argentina) illustrates a variation in chemical composition related to geographical distribution, mainly in terms of TiO₂ and K₂O. A relationship between chemistry and distance from the Peru-Chile trench, dependent on P, Ti and Sr content of some cenozoic lavas from Southern Peru is also illustrated, by means of Multilinear Standardized Regressions and Partial Correlation analysis.

---

Zusammenfassung Die Anwendung zweier statistischer Methoden (Principal Component und Discriminant Analysis) zur Erfassung der Oxidverteilung in den rezenten Vulkaniten der zentralen Anden (S-Peru, N-Chile, Bolivien und Argentinien) hat gezeigt, daß die Variation der chemischen Zusammensetzung, hauptsächlich bei TiO₂ und K₂O, abhängig von der geographischen Position der Ausbruchzentren ist.Eine Beziehung zwischen Geochemie und Entfernung vom Peru-Chile Tief-Seegraben für die rezenten Laven in S-Peru wird ferner mit multilinearen standardisierten Regressionen und Korrelationsanalysen, mit Schwerpunkt bei den Elementen P, Ti und Sr, aufgezeigt.

---

Resume L'application de deux méthodes statistiques multivariées (Principal Component et Discriminant Analysis) à la distribution des éléments majeurs et mineurs dans les roches volcaniques récentes des Andes centrales (S-Pérou, N-Chili, Bolivie et Argentine) montre une variation de la composition chimique en fonction de la distribution géographique, surtout en ce qui concerne TiO₂ et K₂O.Une relation entre la variation de composition chimique de quelques laves récentes du Pérou du Sud et la distance du fossé océanique du Pérou-Chili est aussi montrée, à l'aide des Regressions Multilinéaires Standardisées et de l'Analyse de Corrélation partielle. Cette relation concerne spécialment les teneurs en P, Ti et Sr des laves étudiées.

---

— Principal Component, Discriminant Analysis ( , , ) , . . . iO₂, K₂, . - . T Sr

     

Geodynamics of the northwestern sector of the pacific mobile belt in the Late Cretaceous-Early Paleogene

In the Late Cretaceous starting from the early Coniacian, three parallel suprasubduction structural units have developed contemporaneously in the northwestern Paleopacific framework: (1) the Okhotsk-Chukchi arc at the Asian continental margin, (2) the West Kamchatka and Essoveem ensialic arcs at the northwestern margins of the Kamchatka and Central Koryak continental blocks, and (3) the Achaivayam-Valagin ensimatic arc that extended to the southwest as the Lesser Kuril ensialic arc at the southern margin of the Sea of Okhotsk continental block. In this setting, the geodynamics of the Paleopacific plates exerted an effect only on the evolution of the outer (relative to the continent) ensimatic island arc, whereas the vast inner region between this arc and the continent evolved independently. As is seen from the character of the gravity field and seismic refractor velocity, the Kamchatka and Sea of Okhotsk continental blocks differ in the structure of the consolidated crust. These blocks collided with each other and the Asian continent in the middle Campanian (77 Ma ago). The extensive pre-Paleogene land that existed on the place of the present-day Sea of Okhotsk probably supplied the terrigenous material deposited since the late Campanian on the oceanic crust of the backarc basin to the south of the rise of inner continental blocks as the Khozgon, Lesnaya, and Ukelayat flysch complexes. The accretion of the Olyutor (Achaivayam) and Valagin segments of the ensimatic arc had different consequences due to the difference in thickness of the Earth’s crust. The Valagin segment was formed on an older basement and had a much greater thickness of the crust than the Olyutor segment. As follows from computations and the results of physical modeling, the island arcs having crust more than 25 km in thickness collide with the continental margin and are thrust over the latter. In the case under consideration, the thrusting of the Valagin segment led to metamorphism of the underlying rocks. The crust of the Olyutor segment was much thinner. The contact of this segment with the continental margin resulted only in surficial accretion, which did not bring about metamorphism, and the underlying lithospheric plate continued to plunge into the subduction zone.     

Paleozoic orogenic gold deposits in the eastern Central Andes and its foreland,South America

In the eastern Central Andes and its foreland (6°–34°S), abundant quartz veins emplaced along brittle–ductile deformation zones in Ordovician to Carboniferous granites and gneisses and in saddle-reefs in lower Paleozoic turbidites represent a coherent group of middle to late Paleozoic structurally hosted gold deposits that are part of three major Au (±Sb±W) metallogenic belts. These belts, extending from northern Peru to central Argentina along the Eastern Andean Cordillera and further south in the Sierras Pampeanas, include historical districts and mines such as Pataz–Parcoy, Ananea, Santo Domingo, Yani–Aucapata, Amayapampa, Sierra de la Rinconada and Sierras de Córdoba. On the basis of the available isotopic ages, two broad mineralization epochs have been identified, with Devonian ages in the Sierras Pampeanas Au belt (26° to 33°30′S), and Carboniferous ages for the Pataz–Marañón Valley Au-belt in northern Peru (6°50′ to 8°50′S). The absolute timing of the southeastern Peruvian, Bolivian and northwestern Argentinian turbidite-hosted lodes, which form the Au–Sb belt of the southern Eastern Andean Cordillera (12° to 26°S), is poorly constrained. Field relationships suggest overlap of gold veining with Carboniferous deformation events. The northernmost belt, which includes the Pataz province, is over 160-km-long and consists of sulfide-rich quartz veins hosted by brittle–ductile shear zones that have affected Carboniferous granitic intrusions. Gold mineralization, at least in the Pataz province, occurred a few million years after the emplacement of the 329 Ma host pluton and an episode of molassic basin formation, during a period of rapid uplift of the host units. The two southern belts are associated with syn- to post-collisional settings, resulting from the accretion of terranes on the proto-Andean margin of South America. The Au–Sb belt of the southern Eastern Andean Cordillera presumably formed in the final stages of the collision of the Arequipa–Antofalla terrane and the Sierras Pampeanas Au belt is considered concurrent with the late transpressional tectonics associated with the accretion of the Chilenia terrane.The three Devono–Carboniferous Andean belts are the South American segments of the trans-global orogenic gold provinces that were formed from Late Ordovician to Middle Permian in accretionary or collisional belts that circumscribed the Gondwana craton and the paleo-Tethys continental masses. A paleogeographic map of the Gondwana supercontinent in its Middle Cambrian configuration appears as a powerful tool for predicting the location of the majority of the Paleozoic orogenic gold provinces in the world, as they develop within mobile belts along its border. The three South American belts are sited in the metallogenic continuation of the Paleozoic terranes that host the giant eastern Australian goldfields, such as Bendigo–Ballarat and Charters Towers, with which they share many features. When compared to deposits in the French Massif Central, direct counterparts of the Andean deposits such as Pataz and Ananea–Yani are respectively the Saint Yrieix district and the Salsigne deposit. Considering the ubiquity of the Au (±Sb±W) vein-type deposits in the Eastern Cordillera and Sierras Pampeanas, and the relatively little attention devoted to them, the Devonian and Carboniferous orogenic gold deposits in the eastern section of the Central Andes constitute an attractive target for mineral exploration.     

桂西北丹池成矿带主要金属矿床成矿特征及成矿规律

桂西北丹池成矿带是中国重要的有色金属成矿带之一,主要由芒场、大厂、五圩3个矿田组成。文章通过系统的地质调查和综合研究,总结了丹池成矿带主要金属矿床的成矿地质特征,以及矿床的成矿条件和成矿规律研究的新进展;论证了带内重要的多金属矿床为岩浆热液成因。带内燕山晚期花岗岩为高钾钙碱性、过铝质系列的含锡花岗岩,它具有高硅、高碱、贫钙、贫镁的特征;其在成因上为大陆地壳重熔的"S"型,可能源于桂北元古界四堡群或更老构造层的重熔,但也有幔源物质的混入。3个矿田中矿化的分带性明显,以花岗岩隆起为中心向外,矿化组合表现为高温W_Mo矿化、Zn_Cu_Sn矿化→高中温Sn多金属矿化→中低温Pb_Zn矿化→低温Sb_Hg_As矿化。成矿与成岩同期,成矿物质主要来自岩浆,部分来自赋矿的泥盆系;成矿流体早期以岩浆水为主,晚期有较多的大气降水的加入。同时,利用"缺位找矿"的思路,预示在研究程度相对较低的五圩矿田深部有较大的找矿潜力。     

Burial metamorphism in rocks of the Western Andes of Peru

An unconformity bound, episodic pattern of burial metamorphism is preserved in marine and terrestrial volcanic and sedimentary rocks which were deposited in the West Peruvian Trough during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic Eras. A particular metamorphic facies series is developed in each of the stratigraphic-structural units bounded by unconformities. In each unit, grade increases with stratigraphic depth and covers part or all of the range from zeolite to greenschist facies. At every unconformity a mineralogic break occurs where higher grade assemblages on top of the unconformity plane overlie lower grade assemblages. The presence of wairakite and the development of a wide range of metamorphic facies in thin sequences suggest high geothermal gradients, possibly related to generation of magma at depth.     

The Late Paleozoic geodynamics of the West Transbaikalian segment of the Central Asian fold belt

New data testifying to Late Paleozoic tectonometamorphic processes at the West Transbaikalian segment of the Central Asian Fold Belt have been obtained. Zircon dating (SHRIMP-II) of highly metamorphosed rocks showed that the processes took place at 295.3 ± 1.6 Ma. Based on these data, the Late Paleozoic ages of granitoids of the Angara–Vitim areal pluton (340–280 Ma) and some dike complexes in Transbaikalia (300–280 Ma), and the Late Paleozoic age of some carbonate-terrigenous strata dated earlier to the Early Paleozoic, we have substantiated the significant role of Hercynian tectogenesis in the consolidation of the regional continental crust. We have also shown that the Late Paleozoic endogenous events and accompanying sedimentation processes were related to the geodynamic conditions governed by the changing parameters of the subsidence of the Mongol-Okhotsk oceanic subduction slab beneath the Siberian continent. Changes in the slope and rate of the slab subsidence resulted in A-subduction conditions in the distal part of the suprasubduction plate, which led to the formation of accretion-collisional orogen and the Angara–Vitim areal pluton.     

Curved structures and interference fold patterns associated with lateral ramps in the Eastern Cordillera, Central Andes of Argentina

The conspicuous curved structures located at the eastern front of the Eastern Cordillera between 25° and 26° south latitude is coincident with the salient recognized as the El Crestón arc. Major oblique strike-slip faults associated with these strongly curved structures were interpreted as lateral ramps of an eastward displaced thrust sheet. The displacement along these oblique lateral ramps generated the local N–S stress components responsible for the complex hanging wall deformation. Accompanying each lateral ramp, there are two belts of strong oblique fault and folding: the upper Juramento River valley area and El Brete area.On both margins of the Juramento River upper valley, there is extensive map-scale evidence of complex deformation above an oblique ramp. The N–S striking folds originated during Pliocene Andean orogeny were subsequently or simultaneously folded by E–W oriented folds. The lateral ramps delimiting the thrust sheet coincident with the El Crestón arc salient are strike-slip faults emplaced in the abrupt transitions between thick strata forming the salient and thin strata outside of it. El Crestón arc is a salient related to the pre-deformational Cretaceous rift geometry, which developed over a portion of this basin (Metán depocenter) that was initially thicker. The displacement along the northern lateral ramp is sinistral, whereas it is dextral in the southern ramp. The southern end of the Eastern Cordillera of Argentina shows a particular structure reflecting a pronounced along strike variations related to the pre-deformational sedimentary thickness of the Cretaceous basin.     

Petrology and new data on the geochemistry of the Andahua volcanic group (Central Andes,southern Peru)

The Quaternary Andahua volcanic group is located within the Central Volcanic Zone in Southern Peru. The author presents new data on major and trace elements and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr and ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd ratios for Andahua rocks from all regions with volcanic centres. The TAS data identify the Andahua lavas as trachyandesites, basaltic trachyandesites and dacites. The phenocrysts are represented mainly by plagioclase, but olivine, clinopyroxene and hornblende are also present. In some cases the trachyandesites show Ca enrichment and their plagioclases have an andesine–bytownite composition. The plagioclase phenocrysts show a slight normal and occasionally reverse zonation. Their basaltic parental magmas were enriched in fluids derived from dehydration of the subducted oceanic crust. The chemical content of the Andahua volcanic rocks shows some similarity to both the slightly older and the contemporaneous and widespread Barroso Group rocks in this region.     

Genesis of superimposed hypogene and supergene Fe orebodies in BIF at the Madoonga deposit, Yilgarn Craton, Western Australia

The Madoonga iron ore body hosted by banded iron formation (BIF) in the Weld Range greenstone belt of Western Australia is a blend of four genetically and compositionally distinct types of high-grade (>55 wt% Fe) iron ore that includes: (1) hypogene magnetite–talc veins, (2) hypogene specular hematite–quartz veins, (3) supergene goethite–hematite, and (4) supergene-modified, goethite–hematite-rich detrital ores. The spatial coincidence of these different ore types is a major factor controlling the overall size of the Madoonga ore body, but results in a compositionally heterogeneous ore deposit. Hypogene magnetite–talc veins that are up to 3 m thick and 50 m long formed within mylonite and shear zones located along the limbs of isoclinal, recumbent F₁ folds. Relative to least-altered BIF, the magnetite–talc veins are enriched in Fe₂O_3(total), P₂O₅, MgO, Sc, Ga, Al₂O₃, Cl, and Zr; and depleted in SiO₂ and MnO₂. Mafic igneous countryrocks located within 10 m of the northern contact of the mineralised BIF display the replacement of primary igneous amphibole and plagioclase, and metamorphic chlorite by hypogene ferroan chlorite, talc, and magnetite. Later-forming, hypogene specular hematite–quartz veins and their associated alteration halos partly replace magnetite–talc veins in BIF and formed during, to shortly after, the F₂-folding and tilting of the Weld Range tectono-stratigraphy. Supergene goethite–hematite ore zones that are up to 150 m wide, 400 m long, and extend to depths of 300 m replace least-altered BIF and existing hypogene alteration zones. The supergene ore zones formed as a result of the circulation of surface oxidised fluids through late NNW- to NNE-trending, subvertical brittle faults. Flat-lying, supergene goethite–hematite-altered, detrital sediments are concentrated in a paleo-topographic depression along the southern side of the main ENE-trending ridge at Madoonga. Iron ore deposits of the Weld Range greenstone belt record remarkably similar deformation histories, overprinting hypogene alteration events, and high-grade Fe ore types to other Fe ore deposits in the wider Yilgarn Craton (e.g. Koolyanobbing and Windarling deposits) despite these Fe camps being presently located more than 400 km apart and in different tectono-stratigraphic domains. Rather than the existence of a synchronous, Yilgarn-wide, Fe mineralisation event affecting BIF throughout the Yilgarn, it is more likely that these geographically isolated Fe ore districts experienced similar tectonic histories, whereby hypogene fluids were sourced from commonly available fluid reservoirs (e.g. metamorphic, magmatic, or both) and channelled along evolving structures during progressive deformation, resulting in several generations of Fe ore.     

Tok-Algoma magmatic complex of the Selenga-Stanovoi Superterrain in the Central Asian fold belt: Age and tectonic setting

According to the results of U-Pb geochronological investigations, the hornblende subalkali diorite rocks making up the Tok-Algoma Complex in the eastern part of the Selenga-Stanovoi Superterrain of the Central Asian fold belt were formed in the Middle Jurassic rather than in the Middle Archean as was suggested previously. Thus, the age of the regional amphibolite facies metamorphism manifested itself in the Ust??-Gilyui rock sequence of the Stanovoi Complex and that superimposed on granitoids of the Tok-Algoma Complex is Mesozoic rather than Early Precambrian. The geochemical features of the Tok-Algoma granitoids are indicative of the fact that they were formed in the geodynamic setting of the active continental margin or a mature island arc. Hence, it is possible to suggest that the subduction processes along the southern boundary between the Selenga-Stanovoi Superterrain and the Mongolian-Okhotsk ocean basin in the Middle Jurassic resulted in the formation of a magmatic belt of over 500 km in length.     

夹皮沟金矿带韧性剪切变形中的水岩反应及物质组分变化规律”

夹皮沟金矿北西向剪切带存在着长英质和镁铁质两类糜棱岩系列岩石，韧性变形中伴随的大量流体与糜棱岩之间发生了强烈的水岩反应：斜长石绢云母化和钠化，暗色矿物绿泥石化，以及大范围强烈的碳酸盐化。