Assessments of Strength Anisotropy and Deformation Behavior of Banded Amphibolite Rocks

Assessment of strength anisotropy in transversely isotropic rocks has been one of the most challenging subjects in rock engineering. However, far too little attention has been paid to banded amphibolite rocks. This study aim to evaluate strength and deformation anisotropy behavior of banded amphibolite rocks. The dynamic mechanical tests including ultrasonic pulse test, uniaxial compressive strength, Brazilian test and deformability test were performed on drilled rock samples as a function of foliation plane angle (β = 0°, 30°, 60° and 90°). The results obtained have shown that the dynamic mechanical properties of amphibolite rocks have different values concerning banding plane. Compression and shear waves taken parallel to the foliation plane show highest values than those obtained in the other directions. Under uniaxial test, the banded amphibolite has a U-shaped anisotropy with maximum strength at β = 90° and minimum strength is obtained when β = 30°. Strength anisotropic index ranges between 0.96 and 1.47. It seems that the high range value of anisotropic index is mainly due to slight undulation of foliation planes, that being not perfectly straight. The results of elastic deformation test show that there is no clear dependence on microstructures characteristics of subtype-amphibolite rocks that controlling modulus “shape-anisotropy”. However, in this study, Young modulus values of amphibolite rocks with β follow both types of shape-anisotropy, “U-shape” and “decreased order-shaped”. Thus, this study recommended that further research be undertaken regarding the role of modulus “shape-anisotropy” within the same lithotype.     

层状页岩岩石力学特性及其脆性评价

页岩气储层的岩石力学特性对压裂改造效果影响极大,开展页岩破坏机理、力学特性和脆性评价方面的研究,可以为页岩气开采中大规模体积压裂提供技术支持。本文对龙马溪组黑色炭质页岩进行单轴压缩试验,得到以下结论:（1）黑色页岩具有明显的层状薄片矿物结构,矿物主要成分为石英和方解石,结构面固有强度较高;（2）由于强结构面的影响,倾斜层理试件具有较高的弹性模量与单轴抗压强度,但是总体积应变量较小;平行或者垂直层理试件的弹性模量与单轴抗压强度较小,总体积应变量反而大;（3）随着层理倾角β的增大,层状页岩单轴压缩试验测得的起裂应力水平指标表现为"中间小两头大"的U型规律,即层理倾角为30°或60°时测量值较小,而0°或90°时较大;（4）岩石脆性是可压裂性的关键因素,层理角度为30°或者60°时,脆性指标较大,页岩的可压裂性更强,脆性指标的变化规律大致呈倒U型。本文的研究对评价页岩的可压裂性、提高压裂改造效果具有重要的现实意义和应用价值。     

Elastoplastic model with loading memory surfaces (LMS) for monotonic and cyclic behaviour of geomaterials

A new elastoplastic model called loading memory surface based on the critical state concept and the multi‐surface framework is proposed for geomaterials. The model uses a hypoelastic formulation and two plastic mechanisms. The formulations of the model are made in three‐dimensional stress–strain space and work under both monotonic and cyclic loadings. A newly introduced formalism makes it possible to obtain the cyclic response directly from the monotonic loading one. This formalism gives a three‐dimensional generalization of the well‐known Masing rule. The model has been validated against test results of Hostun sand under several conditions: monotonic and cyclic, drained and undrained, tests in compression and in extension, and at different confining pressures and different densities. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

考虑层理影响页岩巴西劈裂及声发射试验研究

基于不同层理角度的页岩巴西劈裂试验,利用高速摄像系统和声发射系统,对页岩力学特性、裂纹扩展及声发射特征的层理效应进行了深入研究。结果表明：（1）页岩巴西劈裂破坏过程可以分为压密、弹性和破坏3个阶段;（2）页岩抗拉强度、劈裂模量和应力峰值时变形的各向异性特征明显,层理角度 30°时,层理效应最为明显, 90°时影响最小;（3） 0°和 15°时试样的裂纹破坏面基本是沿着层理面, 30°时裂纹面交切层理面,与加载基线面重合, 45°～90°的各试样的断裂面呈不同程度的偏离加载基线面,为弧面或曲面;（4） 30°和 45°为破坏机制转化角,其中 30°为沿着层理面压致性张拉开裂转化为交切层理面开裂的转化角, 45°为交切层理面开裂转化为交切层理面且沿着层理面不同程度的剪切滑移开裂的转化角;（5）声发射活动性和能量释放随层理角度的增加而加强,主要因为受层理角度的影响,其破坏机制不同,这也进一步验证了页岩随层理角度的变化,其破坏机制的各向异性。能率峰值与抗拉强度具有很好的线性关系,表明声发射能率峰值能很好地反映岩石抗拉伸破坏的程度。     

Laboratory Investigation into the Effects of Silty Fines on Liquefaction Susceptibility of Chlef (Algeria) Sandy Soils

In a number of recent case studies, the liquefaction of silty sands has been reported. To investigate the undrained shear and deformation behaviour of Chlef sand–silt mixtures, a series of monotonic and stress-controlled cyclic triaxial tests were conducted on sand encountered at the site. The aim of this laboratory investigation is to study the influence of silt contents, expressed by means of the equivalent void ratio on undrained residual shear strength of loose, medium dense and dense sand–silt mixtures under monotonic loading and liquefaction potential under cyclic loading. After an earthquake event, the prediction of the post-liquefaction strength is becoming a challenging task in order to ensure the stability of different types of earth structures. Thus, the choice of the appropriate undrained residual shear strength of silty sandy soils that are prone to liquefaction to be used in engineering practice design should be established. To achieve this, a series of undrained triaxial tests were conducted on reconstituted saturated silty sand samples with different fines contents ranging from 0 to 40 %. In all tests, the confining pressure was held constant at 100 kPa. From the experimental results obtained, it is clear that the global void ratio cannot be used as a state parameter and may not characterize the actual behaviour of the soil as well. The equivalent void ratio expressing the fine particles participation in soil strength is then introduced. A linear relationship between the undrained shear residual shear strength and the equivalent void ratio has been obtained for the studied range of the fines contents. Cyclic test results confirm that the increase in the equivalent void ratio and the fines content accelerates the liquefaction phenomenon for the studied stress ratio and the liquefaction resistance decreases with the increase in either the equivalent void ratio or the loading amplitude level. These cyclic tests results confirm the obtained monotonic tests results.     

A simple critical-state-based double-yield-surface model for clay behavior under complex loading

The critical state concept has been widely used in soil mechanics. The purpose of this study is to apply this concept in the framework of multi-mechanism elastoplasticity. The developed model has two yield surfaces: one for shear sliding and one for compression. In this model, the location of the critical state line is explicitly considered and related to the actual material density to control the peak strength and the phase transformation characteristics. The stress reversal technique is incorporated into the model for describing clay behavior under complex loading including changes of stress direction. The determination of the model parameters is discussed; it requires only one drained or undrained triaxial test up to failure with an initial isotropic consolidation stage. The model is used to simulate drained and undrained tests under monotonic loading with different over-consolidation ratios on various remolded and natural clays, including true triaxial tests with different Lode’s angles. Drained and undrained tests under cyclic loadings are also simulated by using the set of parameters determined from monotonic tests. The comparison between experimental results and numerical simulations demonstrate a good predictive ability of this new simple model.     

不同应变率单轴加载条件下页岩的各向异性力学行为

基于静载条件下的常规力学试验可以证明,页岩层理面的存在是导致其力学行为各向异性的主要原因,而应变率的变化势必也影响着页岩各向异性特征的变化。为探究应变率对页岩各向异性力学行为的影响,分别在10-4 s-1、5×10-4 s-1、10-3 s-1和10-2 s-1 4种应变率条件下对不同层理角度的页岩进行单轴压缩力学试验。研究表明:（1）页岩弹性模量的各向异性程度随应变率升高而减弱,泊松比的各向异性程度受应变率的影响不明显;（2）页岩峰值强度随应变率升高而增加,其中45°~60°试样应变率敏感性最强,页岩的强度各向异性度随应变率升高而降低;（3）随着应变率升高,层理面对页岩破坏模式的控制作用得到削弱,破坏模式的各向异性程度减弱。总体而言,页岩的各向异性力学特征随应变率升高而减弱,研究结论有助于页岩力学行为的深入理解。     

粉砂质板岩力学特性及各向异性特性

为研究鄂西北地区板岩的力学特性及各向异性特征,开展了志留系粉砂质板岩的单轴压缩和巴西劈裂试验,分析了试样的力学特性和各向异性特征以及在不同荷载作用下的变形破坏模式,揭示了不同破坏模式的力学机制,并通过数值分析研究了不同板理面角度板岩边坡破坏模式及力学机制。研究结果表明,粉砂质板岩中的板理面是影响岩体力学行为的弱面,使得粉砂质板岩表现出明显的各向异性的特征。在单轴压缩条件下,粉砂质板岩在垂直板理面方向比平行板理面方向更易变形,变形量更大;平行板理面方向加载时试样破坏类型为竖向劈裂型张拉破坏,其实质是压杆失稳;垂直板理面加载时试样的破坏类型为穿切板理面的劈裂型剪切破坏;所测得的力学参数各向异性也较明显。在劈裂荷载作用下,粉砂质板岩的破坏模式主要有张拉劈裂破坏和沿板理面剪切破坏两种,所得抗拉强度在平行板理面方向上最大,在垂直板理面方向上最小,两个方向上的抗拉强度均小于抗压强度。由于板理面间的抗拉强度极低,在受到与板理面呈小角度相交的劈裂荷载作用时,容易产生沿板理面的张拉劈裂或拉剪破坏,在实际工程中应尽量避免板理面间的受拉破坏和沿板理面的拉剪破坏。在边坡工程中,板理面倾向、倾角对边坡破坏模式及力学机制有较大影响,边坡防护治理需充分考虑这一影响。上述研究为粉砂质板岩区岩质边坡防护治理以及其他岩石工程设计与施工提供理论依据与技术基础。     

An experimental database for the development,calibration and verification of constitutive models for sand with focus to cyclic loading: part I—tests with monotonic loading and stress cycles

For numerical studies of geotechnical structures under earthquake loading, aiming to examine a possible failure due to liquefaction, using a sophisticated constitutive model for the soil is indispensable. Such a model must adequately describe the material response to a cyclic loading under constant volume (undrained) conditions, amongst others the relaxation of effective stress (pore pressure accumulation) or the effective stress loops repeatedly passed through after a sufficiently large number of cycles (cyclic mobility, stress attractors). The soil behaviour under undrained cyclic loading is manifold, depending on the initial conditions (e.g. density, fabric, effective mean pressure, stress ratio) and the load characteristics (e.g. amplitude of the cycles, application of stress or strain cycles). In order to develop, calibrate and verify a constitutive model with focus to undrained cyclic loading, the data from high-quality laboratory tests comprising a variety of initial conditions and load characteristics are necessary. The purpose of these two companion papers was to provide such database collected for a fine sand. The database consists of numerous undrained cyclic triaxial tests with stress or strain cycles applied to samples consolidated isotropically or anisotropically. Monotonic triaxial tests with drained or undrained conditions have also been performed. Furthermore, drained triaxial, oedometric or isotropic compression tests with several un- and reloading cycles are presented. Part I concentrates on the triaxial tests with monotonic loading or stress cycles. All test data presented herein will be available from the homepage of the first author. As an example of the examination of an existing constitutive model, the experimental data are compared to element test simulations using hypoplasticity with intergranular strain.     

层状含水页岩的抗拉强度特性试验研究

为分析层理和水对页岩的抗拉强度特性的影响,现场选取龙马溪组黑色页岩制备成4种含水状态含层理页岩,沿与层理呈0°、30°、60°和90°夹角加载进行巴西劈裂圆盘试验,试验过程同步进行声发射测试,并采用离散元软件3DEC对试验结果进行数值模拟验证。结果表明,相比于含层理页岩,同时考虑含水和层理的页岩在巴西劈裂试验中有其独特的破坏模式和力学特性。含层理页岩的巴西劈裂破坏模式和抗拉强度均与层理角度和含水率有关,破坏模式主要受控于层理与荷载的加载方向,水虽不会影响其破坏模式但能够导致次生裂纹的形成。抗拉强度则表现出随层理角度的增加而先减小后增大,随含水率的增加而减小的趋势。并且,在页岩同时受水和层理损伤作用时,受层理损伤程度越大,水对其损伤程度也越高。通过对含层理不同含水率页岩的微观结构分析得到了上述变化规律的内在机制,即页岩层理面处的内部矿物颗粒遇水膨胀,产生膨胀力作用,使页岩内部结构变得松散、破碎,微裂纹逐渐增多、变宽,宏观表现为次生裂纹的增多,矿物颗粒间的黏结力也在水的作用下降低从而使页岩的抗拉强度下降。     

页岩各向异性力学特性微观测试方法研究

页岩力学各向异性特征是地应力、 井壁稳定、 水力裂缝扩展相关研究的重要基础参数.针对页岩力学各向异性宏观测试中存在样品制取困难、制样成功率低的特点,采用来源丰富的钻井岩屑或破碎岩块,通过研究纳米压痕实验原理、实验方法和数据解释方法,采用连续刚度测试方法对平行层理和垂直层理的页岩试样进行纳米压痕测试;基于硬度的分类准则将...     

Experimental investigations on the elastic parameters and uniaxial compressive strength of slate under freeze–thaw cycles

ABSTRACT

In this study, uniaxial compression experiments with seven different bedding angles and six numbers of freeze–thaw cycles were conducted to investigate the influences of freeze–thaw cycles on the elastic parameters and the uniaxial compressive strength of slate. The laws of the elastic parameters, uniaxial compressive strength and failure characteristics were analysed, and a new uniaxial compressive strength prediction model that considers the bedding angle and the number of freeze–thaw cycles as control variables was established and verified using the experimental data. The results showed that the uniaxial compressive strength, elastic modulus and shear modulus decreased exponentially with an increasing number of freeze–thaw cycles. However, the Poisson’s ratio increased linearly with an increasing number of freeze–thaw cycles. The uniaxial compressive strength initially decreased and then increased with increasing bedding angle. There are three forms of failure occurred during the tests: when the bedding angle was 0°≤β ≤ 26.6°, the splitting failure and shear failure occurred at the same time; when the bedding angle was 26.6°≤β ≤ 83.0°, sliding failure occurred along the bedding plane; and when the bedding angle was 83.0°≤β ≤ 90°, splitting failure occurred along the axial direction of sample.     

层状页岩力学特性及其破坏模式研究

采用MTS815型岩石力学试验机进行了页岩层理面不同角度取芯的力学试验,获得了其力学参数及破坏模式特征。试验表明：层理面不同角度试样力学性质存在较大差异性,平行层理面试样其抗压强度最高,与层理面夹角为30°时抗压强度最低,弹性模量随取芯角度的增加逐渐降低。单轴压缩,夹角为0°时破坏模式主要为沿多个平行层理面竖向劈裂,夹角为30°时沿层理弱面剪切破坏,夹角为60°时为大角度剪切破坏并贯穿60°弱层理面,夹角为90°时主要为层状拉张破坏。三轴压缩,夹角为0°时试样有多条破裂面,呈劈裂与剪切破坏共同作用;夹角为30°时,沿层理面剪切破坏;夹角为60°时,呈现剪切破坏,剪切破裂面与水平面夹角在45°~50°之间;夹角为90°时,以剪切破坏为主,有多条平行开裂层面。页岩层理面表现出明显的弱面特征,研究结果为水力压裂施工设计提供了技术参数。     

Anisotropic mechanical properties and brittleness evaluation of layered phylliteEI北大核心

为了研究层状千枚岩的力学特性与各向异性特征,开展了不同层理倾角与不同围压下的千枚岩力学试验。对比分析了千枚岩试样强度、变形、脆性与破坏模式等各向异性特征。结果表明:(1)随着层理倾角β增加,岩样的强度、变形特征曲线形状呈U型;随围压增加,岩样强度及塑性增强,各向异性度逐渐减弱稳定。(2)采用多种强度准则描述岩样强度各向异性,其中Saeidi准则和改进Ramamurthy准则能很好地预测岩样在不同层理倾角下的抗压强度。(3)基于岩样峰前应力-应变曲线与能量特征提出了综合脆性评价指标,在层理倾角β=45°左右时,岩样脆性指标较低,更易发生剪切滑移破坏,得出脆性下降顺序为:沿层理面拉伸劈裂>穿层理面拉伸劈裂>沿层理面剪切>穿层理面剪切。(4)千枚岩的破坏模式与层理倾角和围压有关,单轴条件下,岩样劈裂破坏后易形成复杂裂纹网络;高围压下,岩样破裂后多形成单一的沿层理面或贯穿多层理面的剪切破坏。     

复杂应力条件下饱和砂土单调剪切特性的试验研究

利用土工静力-动力液压-三轴扭转多功能剪切仪,针对相对密度为30 %的福建标准砂,进行了复杂初始固结条件下应力路径变化的应力控制式单调排水与不排水剪切试验。控制试验过程的平均主应力保持不变,变化中主应力系数和主应力方向,分别探讨在不同排水条件下中主应力系数和主应力方向对饱和砂土剪切特性的影响。通过对比表明：与排水条件无关,中主应力系数对归一化的应力-应变关系具有影响,但对体变或孔压的影响并不明显。初始条件相同,偏应力比随中主应力系数的增大而降低。主应力方向的影响同样显著,排水试验的主应力方向角不同时应力-应变关系所表现出的变化规律取决于水平面与竖直面上受到的剪应力作用。不排水试验的峰值有效偏应力比随着主应力方向角的增大而减小。     

页岩单轴压缩应力-应变特征及能量各向异性

层理对页岩力学性质和应变能的积聚和耗散具有重要影响,以不同层理面角度下龙马溪组页岩为研究对象,开展电镜扫描试验和单轴压缩试验,研究起裂、扩容和峰值特征点的应力-应变、弹性模量和泊松比的各向异性特征,分析其页岩变形破坏过程中输入应变能、可释放弹性应变能和耗散应变能的变化规律,揭示输入应变能与层理面角度和抗压强度的关系。结果表明：龙马溪组页岩脆性矿物含量达到72.58%,微观结构各向异性明显;随层理面角度增加,起裂、扩容和峰值特征点的应力和应变都先减少后增大,在 30°时均达到一个最低值,总体上呈现两边高、中间低的U型变化规律;随层理面角度增加,起裂、扩容和峰值特征点的输入应变能、可释放弹性应变能和耗散应变能也先减少后增大,在 30°时均达到一个最低值;各特征点的应力、应变和应变能各向异性敏感性明显,0°≤ ≤30°和30°≤ ≤60°内各向异性的敏感性大于60°≤ ≤90°;起裂应力和扩容应力均与峰值应力呈线性相关,同时峰值应变能与抗压强度存在相应的二次非线性关系,这为页岩气钻井、储层压裂改造和井壁稳定性预测预警提供了根据和参考。     

炭质页岩巴西劈裂载荷下破坏过程的时空特征研究

页岩在加载过程中的破裂时机及其空间位置研究对于页岩气探测及储层评价具有重要意义,为此开展了不同层理倾角条件下页岩的巴西圆盘劈裂载荷下的破坏过程试验,采用数字图像相关技术（DIC）,全程跟踪页岩裂纹萌生、扩展和贯通全过程的变形场实时演化特征,同时记录力-位移曲线,利用扫描电镜获得炭质页岩的破裂面特征及微观结构,采用宏、细观相结合的手段,研究不同层理方向炭质页岩微裂缝起裂时间、空间位置和扩展规律及其破裂机制。结果表明：页岩的巴西劈裂强度随层理方向与加载方向角度的增大而逐渐增大;随加载方向与层理面夹角的增加,裂缝萌生的时间逐渐增加,而裂缝从萌生、扩展到贯通所用时间逐渐减少。所有角度试件基本从试件端部萌生裂缝并沿层理面扩展,除90°试件外,不同层理倾角试样主裂缝破裂的位置逐渐偏离中心位置而向试件外侧发展。各角度试件主破坏类型存在一定差异性,除90°试件竖向主裂缝为张拉破坏外,随加载方向与层理面夹角的增加,各加载角度试件的主破裂模式从张拉剪切破坏逐渐过渡为剪切滑移破坏。     

An experimental database for the development,calibration and verification of constitutive models for sand with focus to cyclic loading: part II—tests with strain cycles and combined loading

For numerical studies of geotechnical structures under earthquake loading, aiming to examine a possible failure due to liquefaction, using a sophisticated constitutive model for the soil is indispensable. Such model must adequately describe the material response to a cyclic loading under constant volume (undrained) conditions, amongst others the relaxation of effective stress (pore pressure accumulation) or the effective stress loops repeatedly passed through after a sufficiently large number of cycles (cyclic mobility, stress attractors). The soil behaviour under undrained cyclic loading is manifold, depending on the initial conditions (e.g. density, fabric, effective mean pressure, stress ratio) and the load characteristics (e.g. amplitude of the cycles, application of stress or strain cycles). In order to develop, calibrate and verify a constitutive model with focus to undrained cyclic loading, the data from high-quality laboratory tests comprising a variety of initial conditions and load characteristics are necessary. It is the purpose of these two companion papers to provide such database collected for a fine sand. Part II concentrates on the undrained triaxial tests with strain cycles, where a large range of strain amplitudes has been studied. Furthermore, oedometric and isotropic compression tests as well as drained triaxial tests with un- and reloading cycles are discussed. A combined monotonic and cyclic loading has been also studied in undrained triaxial tests. All test data presented herein will be available from the homepage of the first author. As an example of the examination of an existing constitutive model, the experimental data are compared to element test simulations using hypoplasticity with intergranular strain.