Dependence of climate forcing and response on the altitude of black carbon aerosols

Black carbon aerosols absorb solar radiation and decrease planetary albedo, and thus can contribute to climate warming. In this paper, the dependence of equilibrium climate response on the altitude of black carbon is explored using an atmospheric general circulation model coupled to a mixed layer ocean model. The simulations model aerosol direct and semi-direct effects, but not indirect effects. Aerosol concentrations are prescribed and not interactive. It is shown that climate response of black carbon is highly dependent on the altitude of the aerosol. As the altitude of black carbon increases, surface temperatures decrease; black carbon near the surface causes surface warming, whereas black carbon near the tropopause and in the stratosphere causes surface cooling. This cooling occurs despite increasing planetary absorption of sunlight (i.e. decreasing planetary albedo). We find that the trend in surface air temperature response versus the altitude of black carbon is consistent with our calculations of radiative forcing after the troposphere, stratosphere, and land surface have undergone rapid adjustment, calculated as “regressed” radiative forcing. The variation in climate response from black carbon at different altitudes occurs largely from different fast climate responses; temperature dependent feedbacks are not statistically distinguishable. Impacts of black carbon at various altitudes on the hydrological cycle are also discussed; black carbon in the lowest atmospheric layer increases precipitation despite reductions in solar radiation reaching the surface, whereas black carbon at higher altitudes decreases precipitation.     

A regional and global analysis of carbon dioxide physiological forcing and its impact on climate

An increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has both a radiative (greenhouse) effect and a physiological effect on climate. The physiological effect forces climate as plant stomata do not open as wide under enhanced CO₂ levels and this alters the surface energy balance by reducing the evapotranspiration flux to the atmosphere, a process referred to as ‘carbon dioxide physiological forcing’. Here the climate impact of the carbon dioxide physiological forcing is isolated using an ensemble of twelve 5-year experiments with the Met Office Hadley Centre HadCM3LC fully coupled atmosphere–ocean model where atmospheric carbon dioxide levels are instantaneously quadrupled and thereafter held constant. Fast responses (within a few months) to carbon dioxide physiological forcing are analyzed at a global and regional scale. Results show a strong influence of the physiological forcing on the land surface energy budget, hydrological cycle and near surface climate. For example, global precipitation rate reduces by ~3% with significant decreases over most land-regions, mainly from reductions to convective rainfall. This fast hydrological response is still evident after 5 years of model integration. Decreased evapotranspiration over land also leads to land surface warming and a drying of near surface air, both of which lead to significant reductions in near surface relative humidity (~6%) and cloud fraction (~3%). Patterns of fast responses consistently show that results are largest in the Amazon and central African forest, and to a lesser extent in the boreal and temperate forest. Carbon dioxide physiological forcing could be a source of uncertainty in many model predicted quantities, such as climate sensitivity, transient climate response and the hydrological sensitivity. These results highlight the importance of including biological components of the Earth system in climate change studies.     

Carbon cycle–climate feedback sensitivity to parameter changes of a zero-dimensional terrestrial carbon cycle scheme in a climate model of intermediate complexity

Summary A series of sensitivity runs have been performed with a coupled climate–carbon cycle model. The climatic component consists of the climate model of intermediate complexity IAP RAS CM. The carbon cycle component is formulated as a simple zero-dimensional model. Its terrestrial part includes gross photosynthesis, and plant and soil respirations, depending on temperature via Q ₁₀-relationships (Lenton, 2000). Oceanic uptake of anthropogenic carbon is formulated is a bi-linear function of tendencies of atmospheric concentration of CO₂ and globally averaged annual mean sea surface temperature. The model is forced by the historical industrial and land use emissions of carbon dioxide for the second half of the 19th and the whole of the 20th centuries, and by the emission scenario SRES A2 for the 21st century. For the standard set of the governing parameters, the model realistically captures the main features of the Earth’s observed carbon cycle. A large number of simulations have been performed, perturbing the governing parameters of the terrestrial carbon cycle model. In addition, the climate part is perturbed, either by zeroing or artificially increasing the climate model sensitivity to the doubling of the atmospheric CO₂ concentration. Performing the above mentioned perturbations, it is possible to mimic most of the range found in the C4MIP simulations. In this way, a wide range of the climate–carbon cycle feedback strengths is obtained, differing even in the sign of the feedback. If the performed simulations are subjected to the constraints of a maximum allowed deviation of the simulated atmospheric CO₂ concentration (pCO_2(a)) from the observed values and correspondence between simulated and observed terrestrial uptakes, it is possible to narrow the corresponding uncertainty range. Among these constraints, considering pCO_2(a) and uptakes are both important. However, the terrestrial uptakes constrain the simulations more effectively than the oceanic ones. These constraints, while useful, are still unable to rule out both extremely strong positive and modest negative climate–carbon cycle feedback.     

Bjerknes’ hypothesis on the coldness during AD 1790–1820 revisited

The aim of this paper is to re-examine and quantify a hypothesis first put forward by J. Bjerknes concerning the anomalous coldness during the AD 1790–1820 period in western Europe. Central to Bjerknes’ hypothesis is an anomalous interaction between ocean and atmosphere studied here using an ocean-atmosphere coupled climate model of intermediate complexity. A reconstruction of the sea-level pressure pattern over the North Atlantic sector averaged over the period 1790–1820 is assimilated in this model, using a recently developed technique which has not been applied to paleoclimatic modelling before. This technique ensures that averaged over the simulation the reconstructed pattern is retrieved whilst leaving atmospheric and climatic variability to develop freely. In accordance with Bjerknes’ hypothesis, the model results show anomalous southward advection of polar waters into the northeastern North Atlantic in the winter season, lowering the sea-surface temperatures (SSTs) there with 0.3–1.0°C. This SST anomaly is persistent into the summer season. A decrease in western European winter surface air temperatures is found which can be related almost completely to advection of cold polar air. The decrease in summer surface air temperatures is related to a combination of low SSTs and anomalous atmospheric circulation. The modelled winter and summer temperatures in Europe compare favourably with reconstructed temperatures. Enhanced baroclinicity at the Atlantic seaboard and over Baffin Island is observed along with more variability in the position of the North Atlantic storm tracks. The zone of peak winter storm frequency is drawn to the European mid-latitudes. In the original article (Climate Dynamics (2005) 24: 355-371; ) figures 4, 7, 8, 10, 11 and 13 were unfortunately incorrect. The correct version is shown here.     

Seasonal and interannual variability of carbon dioxide and water balances of a grassland

There is great international concern over the increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide and its effect on vegetation and climate, and vice versa. Many studies on this issue are based on climate model calculations or indirect satellite observations. In contrast we present a 12-year study (1994–2005) on the net ecosystem exchange of carbon dioxide (NEE) and precipitation surplus (i.e., precipitation–evaporation) of a grassland area in the centre of the Netherlands. On basis of direct flux observations and a process-based model we study and quantify the carbon uptake via assimilation and carbon release via soil and plant respiration. It appears that nearly year-round the assimilation term dominates, which indicates an accumulation of carbon dioxide. The mean net carbon uptake for the 12-year period is about 3 tonnes C per hectare, but with a strong seasonal and interannual variability depending on the weather and water budget. This variability may severely hamper the accurate quantification of carbon storage by vegetation in our present climates and its projection for future climates.     

Past and future polar amplification of climate change: climate model intercomparisons and ice-core constraints

Climate model simulations available from the PMIP1, PMIP2 and CMIP (IPCC-AR4) intercomparison projects for past and future climate change simulations are examined in terms of polar temperature changes in comparison to global temperature changes and with respect to pre-industrial reference simulations. For the mid-Holocene (MH, 6,000 years ago), the models are forced by changes in the Earth’s orbital parameters. The MH PMIP1 atmosphere-only simulations conducted with sea surface temperatures fixed to modern conditions show no MH consistent response for the poles, whereas the new PMIP2 coupled atmosphere–ocean climate models systematically simulate a significant MH warming both for Greenland (but smaller than ice-core based estimates) and Antarctica (consistent with the range of ice-core based range). In both PMIP1 and PMIP2, the MH annual mean changes in global temperature are negligible, consistent with the MH orbital forcing. The simulated last glacial maximum (LGM, 21,000 years ago) to pre-industrial change in global mean temperature ranges between 3 and 7°C in PMIP1 and PMIP2 model runs, similar to the range of temperature change expected from a quadrupling of atmospheric CO₂ concentrations in the CMIP simulations. Both LGM and future climate simulations are associated with a polar amplification of climate change. The range of glacial polar amplification in Greenland is strongly dependent on the ice sheet elevation changes prescribed to the climate models. All PMIP2 simulations systematically underestimate the reconstructed glacial–interglacial Greenland temperature change, while some of the simulations do capture the reconstructed glacial–interglacial Antarctic temperature change. Uncertainties in the prescribed central ice cap elevation cannot account for the temperature change underestimation by climate models. The variety of climate model sensitivities enables the exploration of the relative changes in polar temperature with respect to changes in global temperatures. Simulated changes of polar temperatures are strongly related to changes in simulated global temperatures for both future and LGM climates, confirming that ice-core-based reconstructions provide quantitative insights on global climate changes. An erratum to this article can be found at     

A steady two-dimensional climate model with residual circulation

Based on dynamical energy transport and thermodynamic energy balance in the earth’s atmosphere-ocean system a steady two-dimensional climate model with residual circulation is proposed. In the model, we include some important physical processes with feedbacks such as ice caps-albedo, water vapor-tempera-ture, etc. The simulated steady temperature field is very close to that of the real atmosphere. The numerical experiments show that doubling of the atmospheric carbon dioxide results in temperature increase of 1~2oC at the low latitude surface and 6~8oC at the high latitude surface. It is shown that a 6% decrease in the solar constant is required for the -10oC ice edge to move from its present latitude ~70o to~50o.     

Constraints on the temperature sensitivity of global soil respiration from the observed interannual variability in atmospheric CO2

Carbon cycle feedbacks have been shown to be very important in predicting climate change over the next century. The response of the terrestrial carbon cycle to climate change depends on the competition between increased respiration due to warmer temperatures and increased uptake due to elevated CO₂levels. Whether the terrestrial carbon cycle remains a sink for anthropogenic carbon, or switches to become a source, depends particularly on the response of soil respiration to temperature. Here we use observed global atmospheric CO₂concentration to constrain the behaviour of soil respiration in a coupled climate–carbon cycle GCM.     

Tropical–extratropical climate interaction as revealed in idealized coupled climate model experiments

Tropical–extratropical climate interactions are studied by idealized experiments with a prescribed 2°C SST anomaly at different latitude bands in a coupled climate model. Instead of focusing on intrinsic climate variability, this work investigates the mean climate adjustment to remote external forcing. The extratropical impact on tropical climate can be as strong as the tropical impact on extratropical climate, with the remote sea surface temperature (SST) response being about half the magnitude of the imposed SST change in the forcing region. The equatorward impact of extratropical climate is accomplished by both the atmospheric bridge and the oceanic tunnel. About two-thirds of the tropical SST change comes from the atmospheric bridge, while the remaining one-third comes from the oceanic tunnel. The equatorial SST increase is first driven by the reduced latent heat flux and the weakened poleward surface Ekman transport, and then enhanced by the decrease in subtropical cells’ strength and the equatorward subduction of warm anomalies. In contrast, the poleward impact of tropical climate is accomplished mainly by the atmospheric bridge, which is responsible for extratropical temperature changes in both the surface and subsurface. Sensitivity experiments also show the dominant role of the Southern Hemisphere oceans in the tropical climate change. CCR contribution number 829; DAS-PKU contribution number 002.     

RESPONSES OF A GLOBAL CGCM TO CO_2 INCREASE

The responses of the climate system to increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide(CO_2)arestudied by using a new version of the Bureau of Meteorological Research Centre(BMRC)globalcoupled general circulation model(CGCM).Two simulations are run:one with atmospheric CO_2concentration held constant at 330 ppm,the other with a tripling of atmospheric CO_2(990 ppm).Results from the 41-year control coupled integration are applied to analyze the mean state,seasonal cycle and interannual variability in the model.Comparisons between the greenhouseexperiment and the control experiment then provide estimations of the influence of increased CO_2on climate changes and climate variability.Especially discussed is the question on whether theclimate changes concerned with CO_2 inerease will impact interannual variability in tropical Pacific,such as ENSO.     

Interdisciplinary research and integration: The case of CO2 and climate

The possibility that increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations may lead to significant climate changes poses a problem of unusual breath and complexity to society. Research on this problem, and on ways society can respond to it, needs to be carefully organized and managed in an interdisciplinary and flexible manner. New means of integrating research results and ensuring their usefulness for policy decisions must be explored. Research on the CO₂ problem should also be closely ‘tied-in’ with research on other social and environmental issues. The views expressed in this paper are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the views of the Climate Board or the National Academy of Sciences.     

Rossby wave dynamics of the North Pacific extra-tropical response to El Niño: importance of the basic state in coupled GCMs

The extra-tropical response to El Niño in a “low” horizontal resolution coupled climate model, typical of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change fourth assessment report simulations, is shown to have serious systematic errors. A high resolution configuration of the same model has a much improved response that is similar to observations. The errors in the low resolution model are traced to an incorrect representation of the atmospheric teleconnection mechanism that controls the extra-tropical sea surface temperatures (SSTs) during El Niño. This is due to an unrealistic atmospheric mean state, which changes the propagation characteristics of Rossby waves. These erroneous upper tropospheric circulation anomalies then induce erroneous surface circulation features over the North Pacific. The associated surface wind speed and direction errors create erroneous surface flux and upwelling anomalies which finally lead to the incorrect extra-tropical SST response to El Niño in the low resolution model. This highlights the sensitivity of the climate response to a single link in a chain of complex climatic processes. The correct representation of these processes in the high resolution model indicates the importance of horizontal resolution in resolving such processes.     

The effect of snow on Antarctic sea ice simulations in a coupled atmosphere-sea ice model

 The effect of a snow cover on sea ice accretion and ablation is estimated based on the ‘zero-layer’ version sea ice model of Semtner, and is examined using a coupled atmosphere-sea ice model including feedbacks and ice dynamics effects. When snow is disregarded in the coupled model the averaged Antarctic sea ice becomes thicker. When only half of the snowfall predicted by the atmospheric model is allowed to land on the ice surface sea ice gets thicker in most of the Weddell and Ross Seas but thinner in East Antarctic in winter, with the average slightly thicker. When twice as much snowfall as predicted by the atmospheric model is assumed to land on the ice surface sea ice also gets much thicker due to the large increase of snow-ice formation. These results indicate the importance of the correct simulation of the snow cover over sea ice and snow-ice formation in the Antarctic. Our results also illustrate the complex feedback effects of the snow cover in global climate models. In this study we have also tested the use of a mean value of 0.16 Wm^-1 K^-1 instead of 0.31 for the thermal conductivity of snow in the coupled model, based on the most recent observations in the eastern Antarctic and Bellingshausen and Amundsen Seas, and have found that the sea ice distribution changes greatly, with the ice becoming much thinner by about 0.2 m in the Antarctic and about 0.4 m in the Arctic on average. This implies that the magnitude of the thermal conductivity of snow is of considerable importance for the simulation of the sea ice distribution. An appropriate value of the thermal conductivity of snow is as crucial as the depth of the snow layer and the snowfall rate in a sea ice model. The coupled climate models require accurate values of the effective thermal conductivity of snow from observations for validating the simulated sea ice distribution under the present climate conditions. Received: 20 November 1997/Accepted: 27 July 1998     

Detection of anthropogenic climate change using an atmospheric GCM

 Atmosphere-only general circulation models are shown to be a useful tool for detecting an anthropogenic effect on climate and understanding recent climate change. Ensembles of atmospheric runs are all forced with the same observed changes in sea surface temperatures and sea-ice extents but differ in terms of the combinations of anthropogenic effects included. Therefore, our approach aims to detect the `immediate' anthropogenic impact on the atmosphere as opposed to that which has arisen via oceanic feedbacks. We have adapted two well-used detection techniques, pattern correlations and fingerprints, and both show that near-decadal changes in the patterns of zonal mean upper air temperature are well simulated, and that it is highly unlikely that the observed changes could be accounted for by sea surface temperature variations and internal variability alone. Furthermore, we show that for zonally averaged upper air temperature, internal `noise' in the atmospheric model is small enough that a signal emerges from the data even on interannual time scales; this would not be possible in a coupled ocean-atmosphere general circulation model. Finally, although anthropogenic forcings have had a significant impact on global mean land surface temperature, we find that their influence on the pattern of local deviations about this mean is so far undetectable. In order to achieve this in the future, as the signal grows, it will also be important that the response of the Northern Hemisphere mid-latitude westerly flow to changing sea surface temperatures is well simulated in climate model detection studies. Received: 3 December 1999 / Accepted: 30 October 2000     

Interactions between perturbations to different Earth system components simulated by a fully-coupled climate model

We examine the global mean surface temperature and carbon cycle responses to the A1B emissions scenario for a new 57 member perturbed-parameter ensemble of simulations generated using the fully coupled atmosphere-ocean-carbon cycle climate model HadCM3C. The model variants feature simultaneous perturbation to parameters that control atmosphere, ocean, land carbon cycle and sulphur cycle processes in this Earth system model, and is the first experiment of its kind. The experimental design, based on four earlier ensembles with parameters varied within each individual Earth system component, allows the effects of interactions between uncertainties in the different components to be explored. A large spread in response is obtained, with atmospheric CO₂ at the end of the twenty-first century ranging from 615 to 1,100 ppm. On average though, the mean effect of the parameter perturbations is to significantly reduce the amount of atmospheric CO₂ compared to that seen in the standard HadCM3C model. Global temperature change for 2090–2099 relative to the pre-industrial period ranges from 2.2 to 7.5 °C, with large temperature responses occurring when atmospheric model versions with high climate sensitivities are combined with carbon cycle components that emit large amounts of CO₂ to the atmosphere under warming. A simple climate model, tuned to reproduce the responses of the separate Earth system component ensembles, is used to demonstrate that interactions between uncertainties in the different components play a significant role in determining the spread of responses in global mean surface temperature. This ensemble explores a wide range of interactions and response, and therefore provides a useful resource for the provision of regional climate projections and associated uncertainties.     

The effects of carbon cycle model error in calculating future atmospheric carbon dioxide levels

Empirical investigations have indicated that projections of future atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations of a quality quite adequate for practical questions regarding the environmental threat of anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions and its relationship to energy use policy could be made with the simple assumption that a constant fraction of these emissions would be retained by the atmosphere. By analysis of the structural behavior of equations describing the transfer of carbon and carbon dioxide between their several reservoirs we have been able to demonstrate that this characteristic can be explained to result from approximately linear behavior and exponentially growing carbon dioxide release rates, combined with fitting of carbon cycle model parameters to the last twenty years of observed atmospheric carbon dioxide growth. These conclusions are independent of the details of carbon cycle model structure for projections up to 100 years into the future as long as the growth in atmospheric carbon dioxide release rates is sufficiently high, of the order of 1.5% per annum or more, as referenced to p re-industrial (steady state) conditions. At low rates of growth, when the longer response times of the carbon cycling system become important, for most energy use projections the resultant CO₂ induced climate changes are small and the uncertainties in predicted atmospheric carbon dioxide level are thus not important. A possible exception to this condition occurs for scenarios of future fossil fuel use rates designed to avoid atmospheric CO₂ levels exceeding a chosen threshold. In this instance details of carbon cycle model structure could significantly affect conclusions that might be drawn concerning future energy use policies; however, it is possible that such a result stems from inappropriate specification of a criterion for an environmental threat, rather than from inherent inadequacy of current carbon cycle models. Recent carbon cycle model developments postulate transfer processes of carbon into the deep ocean, large carbon storage reservoir at rates much higher than in the models we have analysed. If the existence of such mechanisms is confirmed, and they are found to be sufficiently rapid and large, some of our conclusions regarding the use of the constant fractional retention assumption may have to be modified. Currently at the Gas Research Institute, 8600 West Bryn, Mawr Ave., Chicago, IL 60631, U.S.A.     

The Potential Response of Terrestrial Carbon Storage to Changes in Climate and Atmospheric CO2

We use a georeferenced model of ecosystem carbon dynamics to explore the sensitivity of global terrestrial carbon storage to changes in atmospheric CO₂ and climate. We model changes in ecosystem carbon density, but we do not model shifts in vegetation type. A model of annual NPP is coupled with a model of carbon allocation in vegetation and a model of decomposition and soil carbon dynamics. NPP is a function of climate and atmospheric CO₂ concentration. The CO₂ response is derived from a biochemical model of photosynthesis. With no change in climate, a doubling of atmospheric CO₂ from 280 ppm to 560 ppm enhances equilibrium global NPP by 16.9%; equilibrium global terrestrial ecosystem carbon (TEC) increases by 14.9%. Simulations with no change in atmospheric CO₂ concentration but changes in climate from five atmospheric general circulation models yield increases in global NPP of 10.0–14.8%. The changes in NPP are very nearly balanced by changes in decomposition, and the resulting changes in TEC range from an increase of 1.1% to a decrease of 1.1%. These results are similar to those from analyses using bioclimatic biome models that simulate shifts in ecosystem distribution but do not model changes in carbon density within vegetation types. With changes in both climate and a doubling of atmospheric CO₂, our model generates increases in NPP of 30.2–36.5%. The increases in NPP and litter inputs to the soil more than compensate for any climate stimulation of decomposition and lead to increases in global TEC of 15.4–18.2%.     

Dynamic responses of atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration to global temperature changes between 1850 and 2010

Changes in Earth's temperature have significant impacts on the global carbon cycle that vary at different time scales, yet to quantify such impacts with a simple scheme is traditionally deemed difficult. Here, we show that, by incorporating a temperature sensitivity parameter(1.64 ppm yr~(-1) ?C~(-1)) into a simple linear carbon-cycle model, we can accurately characterize the dynamic responses of atmospheric carbon dioxide(CO_2) concentration to anthropogenic carbon emissions and global temperature changes between 1850 and 2010(r~2 0.96 and the root-mean-square error 1 ppm for the period from 1960onward). Analytical analysis also indicates that the multiplication of the parameter with the response time of the atmospheric carbon reservoir(～12 year) approximates the long-term temperature sensitivity of global atmospheric CO_2concentration(～15 ppm?C~(-1)), generally consistent with previous estimates based on reconstructed CO_2 and climate records over the Little Ice Age. Our results suggest that recent increases in global surface temperatures, which accelerate the release of carbon from the surface reservoirs into the atmosphere, have partially offset surface carbon uptakes enhanced by the elevated atmospheric CO_2 concentration and slowed the net rate of atmospheric CO_2 sequestration by global land and oceans by ～30%since the 1960 s. The linear modeling framework outlined in this paper thus provides a useful tool to diagnose the observed atmospheric CO_2 dynamics and monitor their future changes.     

Climate sensitivity due to increased CO2: experiments with a coupled atmosphere and ocean general circulation model

A version of the National Center for Atmospheric Research community climate model — a global, spectral (R15) general circulation model — is coupled to a coarse-grid (5° latitude-] longitude, four-layer) ocean general circulation model to study the response of the climate system to increases of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂). Three simulations are run: one with an instantaneous doubling of atmospheric CO₂ (from 330 to 660 ppm), another with the CO₂ concentration starting at 330 ppm and increasing linearly at a rate of 1% per year, and a third with CO₂ held constant at 330 pm. Results at the end of 30 years of simulation indicate a globally averaged surface air temperature increase of 1.6° C for the instantaneous doubling case and 0.7°C for the transient forcing case. Inherent characteristics of the coarse-grid ocean model flow sea-surface temperatures (SSTs) in the tropics and higher-than-observed SSTs and reduced sea-ice extent at higher latitudes] produce lower sensitivity in this model after 30 years than in earlier simulations with the same atmosphere coupled to a 50-m, slab-ocean mixed layer. Within the limitations of the simulated meridional overturning, the thermohaline circulation weakens in the coupled model with doubled CO₂ as the high-latitude ocean-surface layer warms and freshens and westerly wind stress is decreased. In the transient forcing case with slowly increasing CO₂ (30% increase after 30 years), the zonal mean warming of the ocean is most evident in the surface layer near 30°–50° S. Geographical plots of surface air temperature change in the transient case show patterns of regional climate anomalies that differ from those in the instantaneous CO₂ doubling case, particularly in the North Atlantic and northern European regions. This suggests that differences in CO₂ forcing in the climate system are important in CO₂ response in regard to time-dependent climate anomaly regimes. This confirms earlier studies with simple climate models that instantaneous CO₂ doubling simulations may not be analogous in all respects to simulations with slowly increasing CO₂.A portion of this study is supported by the US Department of Energy as part of its Carbon Dioxide Research Program     

Boreal forest and tundra ecosystems as components of the climate system

The effects of terrestrial ecosystems on the climate system have received most attention in the tropics, where extensive deforestation and burning has altered atmospheric chemistry and land surface climatology. In this paper we examine the biophysical and biogeochemical effects of boreal forest and tundra ecosystems on atmospheric processes. Boreal forests and tundra have an important role in the global budgets of atmospheric CO₂ and CH₄. However, these biogeochemical interactions are climatically important only at long temporal scales, when terrestrial vegetation undergoes large geographic redistribution in response to climate change. In contrast, by masking the high albedo of snow and through the partitioning of net radiation into sensible and latent heat, boreal forests have a significant impact on the seasonal and annual climatology of much of the Northern Hemisphere. Experiments with the LSX land surface model and the GENESIS climate model show that the boreal forest decreases land surface albedo in the winter, warms surface air temperatures at all times of the year, and increases latent heat flux and atmospheric moisture at all times of the year compared to simulations in which the boreal forest is replaced with bare ground or tundra. These effects are greatest in arctic and sub-arctic regions, but extend to the tropics. This paper shows that land-atmosphere interactions are especially important in arctic and sub-arctic regions, resulting in a coupled system in which the geographic distribution of vegetation affects climate and vice versa. This coupling is most important over long time periods, when changes in the abundance and distribution of boreal forest and tundra ecosystems in response to climatic change influence climate through their carbon storage, albedo, and hydrologic feedbacks.