沁水盆地煤层割理的充填特征及形成过程

煤层作为煤层气的源岩和储集层,与常规天然气储层不同在于煤储层是一种双孔隙岩层,由基质孔隙和裂隙组成,且有自身独特的割理系统,基质孔隙和割理的大小、形态、孔隙度和连通性等决定了煤层气的储集、运移和产出,其中以割理系统对煤层气的产出最为重要。本文以沁水煤田为例,对煤层割理、割理填充物类型、充填方式、自生矿物形成时代进行了研究,总结了填充物形成的先后顺序,并根据填充物的形成时代、煤层埋藏史等提出了割理形成的3种机制：埋藏增压机制;岩浆诱发机制;抬升卸压机制。     

确定沉积岩成岩作用顺序的定量方法

本文从热力学基本定律出发，将复杂的成岩作用过程归结为各种不同的化学反应，从而建立了一套利用反应自由能定量确定成岩作用顺序的方法。该方法将沉积岩成岩作用历史研究从定性引向定量，使其更具理论依据，结果更可靠。利用本方法对国内外两个不同碎屑岩定量研究结果表明，这种方法获得的结果与传统方法的顺序完全一致，从而说明了该方法的良好实用性。     

Mineral matter and trace elements in coals of the Gunnedah Basin, New South Wales, Australia

The concentrations of major and trace inorganic elements in a succession of Permian coals from the Gunnedah Basin, New South Wales, have been determined by X-ray fluorescence techniques applied to both whole-coal and high-temperature ash samples. The results have been evaluated in the light of quantitative data on the minerals in the same coals, determined from X-ray diffraction study of whole-coal samples using a Rietveld-based interpretation program ( ™), to determine relationships of the trace elements in the coals to the mineral species present. Comparison of the chemical composition of the coal ash interpreted from the quantitative mineralogical study to the actual ash composition determined by XRF analysis shows a high degree of consistency, confirming the validity of the XRD interpretations for the Gunnedah Basin materials. Quartz, illite and other minerals of detrital origin dominate the coals in the upper part of the sequence, whereas authigenic kaolinite is abundant in coals from the lower part of the Permian succession. These minerals are all reduced in abundance, however, and pyrite is a dominant constituent, in coals formed under marine influence at several stratigraphic levels. Calcite and dolomite occur as cleat and fracture infillings, mostly in seams near the top and bottom of the sequence. The potassium-bearing minerals in the detrital fraction are associated with significant concentrations of rubidium, and the authigenic kaolinite with relatively high proportions of titanium. Zirconium is also abundant, with associated P and Hf, in the Gunnedah Basin coal seams. Relationships exhibited by Ti, Zr, Nd and Y are consistent with derivation of the original sediment admixed with the seams from an acid volcanic source. Pyrite in the coals is associated with high concentrations of arsenic and minor proportions of thallium; no other element commonly associated with sulphides in coals, however, appears to occur in significant proportions with the pyrite in the sample suite. Small concentrations of Cl present in the coal are inversely related to the pyrite content, and appear to represent ion-exchange components associated with the organic matter. Strontium and barium are strongly associated with the cleat-filling carbonate minerals. Ge and Ga appear to be related to each other and to the coal's organic matter. Cr and V are also related to each other, as are Ce, La, Nd and Pr, but none of these show any relationship to the organic matter or a particular mineral component.     

Evaluation of the damages of permeability and effective porosity of tectonically deformed coals

A high rank coal was tested in terms of loading and unloading to characterize changes in the permeability and effective porosity of tectonically deformed coals. The coal sample, an anthracite, is subdivided into four types according to its structure, namely, the primary structure coal, cataclastic coal (the weakest deformation coal), granulated coal (the moderate deformation coal), and mylonitic coal (the intensest deformation coal); the latter three types are considered to be tectonic deformation coals. Permeability of tectonically deformed coals shows a negative exponential relation to stress. The intenser the structural deformation in coal is, the lower the permeability. Two evaluation parameters, namely, loss rate m (0.8318–0.9476) and damage rate n (0.447–0.6556), which are related to changes in permeability, increase with increasing structural deformation in coal. The cleat compressibility factor declines with increasing difference in effective stress and increases with increasing structural deformation in coal. This study proposes a calculation method for evaluating the porosity damage. Similar to the loss ratio and damage rate, this parameter (η) increases with increasing structural deformation in coal and reveals the relationship between the porosity damage and the structural deformation in coal.     

Geological note: Authigenic Sr‐Ba‐Ca carbonate minerals in coals of the Hunter Valley,New South Wales

Strontianite (SrCO₃), witherite (BaCO₃) and alstonite (CaBa[CO₃]₂) were among the range of epigenetic coal cleat/fracture carbonates identified within the Wittingham Coal Measures, Jerrys Plains Subgroup in the Hunter Valley. Three stages of diagenetic cement development, all related to basin evolution, are postulated. Material for the development of the various carbonates was derived from: basinal pore fluids, surrounding rock and organic matrix as a result of diagenetic exchange, active mass transport or devolatilization of basement rocks during metamorphism, including plutonic intrusion.     

Cleats and their relation to geologic lineaments and coalbed methane potential in Pennsylvanian coals in Indiana

Cleats and fractures in Pennsylvanian coals in southwestern Indiana were described, statistically analyzed, and subsequently interpreted in terms of their origin, relation to geologic lineaments, and significance for coal permeability and coalbed gas generation and storage. These cleats can be interpreted as the result of superimposed endogenic and exogenic processes. Endogenic processes are associated with coalification (i.e., matrix dehydration and shrinkage), while exogenic processes are mainly associated with larger-scale phenomena, such as tectonic stress.At least two distinct generations of cleats were identified on the basis of field reconnaissance and microscopic study: a first generation of cleats that developed early on during coalification and a second generation that cuts through the previous one at an angle that mimics the orientation of the present-day stress field. The observed parallelism between early-formed cleats and mapped lineaments suggests a well-established tectonic control during early cleat formation. Authigenic minerals filling early cleats represent the vestiges of once open hydrologic regimes. The second generation of cleats is characterized by less prominent features (i.e., smaller apertures) with a much less pronounced occurrence of authigenic mineralization. Our findings suggest a multistage development of cleats that resulted from tectonic stress regimes that changed orientation during coalification and basin evolution.The coals studied are characterized by a macrocleat distribution similar to that of well-developed coalbed methane basins (e.g., Black Warrior Basin, Alabama). Scatter plots and regression analyses of meso- and microcleats reveal a power-law distribution between spacing and cleat aperture. The same distribution was observed for fractures at microscopic scale. Our observations suggest that microcleats enhance permeability by providing additional paths for migration of gas out of the coal matrix, in addition to providing access for methanogenic bacteria.The abundance, distribution, and orientation of cleats control coal fabric and are crucial features in all stages of coalbed gas operations (i.e., exploration and production). Understanding coal fabric is important for coal gas exploration as it may be related to groundwater migration and the occurrence of methanogenic bacteria, prerequisite to biogenic gas accumulations. Likewise, the distribution of cleats in coal also determines pathways for migration and accumulation of thermogenic gas generated during coalification.     

Characteristics and origins of coal cleat: A review

Cleats are natural opening-mode fractures in coal beds. They account for most of the permeability and much of the porosity of coalbed gas reservoirs and can have a significant effect on the success of engineering procedures such as cavity stimulations. Because permeability and stimulation success are commonly limiting factors in gas well performance, knowledge of cleat characteristics and origins is essential for successful exploration and production. Although the coal–cleat literature spans at least 160 years, mining issues have been the principal focus, and quantitative data are almost exclusively limited to orientation and spacing information. Few data are available on apertures, heights, lengths, connectivity, and the relation of cleat formation to diagenesis, characteristics that are critical to permeability. Moreover, recent studies of cleat orientation patterns and fracture style suggest that new investigations of even these well-studied parameters can yield insight into coal permeability. More effective predictions of cleat patterns will come from advances in understanding cleat origins. Although cleat formation has been speculatively attributed to diagenetic and/or tectonic processes, a viable mechanical process for creating cleats has yet to be demonstrated. Progress in this area may come from recent developments in fracture mechanics and in coal geochemistry.     

塔里木盆地西北缘下寒武统黑色岩系差异性成岩演化及其影响因素

尽管泥页岩在埋藏过程中经历的复杂成岩改造会显著影响页岩油气储层发育潜力,但对其成岩作用,特别是泥页岩中成岩矿物的类型、成岩演化及其影响因素、成岩矿物元素在低孔低渗孔隙系统中的迁移等问题的认识仍很薄弱,因而制约了对泥页岩储层的深入认识。为此,本文以塔里木盆地西北缘下寒武统玉尔吐斯组发育的两套黑色岩系为例,在沉积环境认识的基础上,通过矿物组分、黏土矿物组合、有机碳含量及有机质成熟度等测定分析,着重研究了黑色岩系自生矿物的分布及在成岩演化阶段的变化特征,阐述了成岩变化的时空分布及其影响因素。研究结果表明：（1）在浅水缓坡台地环境下,玉尔吐斯组受两个较为完整的海进-海退沉积旋回控制而形成的两套黑色岩系主要经历了早成岩阶段和中成岩阶段;（2）受沉积环境和热液作用的影响,这两套黑色岩系在石英、重晶石、碳酸盐胶结物和黏土矿物等自生矿物的组合、分布及形成顺序上存在显著的差异,呈现出差异性成岩演化的特点;（3）伊利石、伊蒙混层、绿泥石、白云石、石英胶结等中成岩阶段成岩产物的广泛分布,反映出在成岩过程中特别是中成岩阶段低孔低渗的泥页岩仍存在一定程度的内部和外部来源的矿物元素迁移。本次研究对深入认识塔里木西北缘下寒武统黑色岩系成岩机制,以及分析页岩储层发育特征提供了重要的依据。     

A review of chlorine and bromine in some United Kingdom coals

In the UK there is a longstanding interest in the Cl content of coals because of the adverse effects associated with high-Cl coals during combustion. An average Cl content of a representative suite of coal samples is 0.44 wt.%, but the range is from near zero to over 1%. Several lines of evidence show that in the high-Cl coals the Cl is associated with the coal moisture and that other sources, such as the silicate minerals, are negligible. Although the Cl is moisture associated there is anion exchange with the organic matter, which means that Cl is less than 100% water- soluble unless the Cl is exchanged with other anion species. This occurs if carbonates are present and calcite in particular. The Cl and Br are closely related and the location within the coal is thought to be common to both. These two elements differ from nearly all other trace elements in UK coals in that they are not present in significant concentrations in the mineral matter or bound within the organic matter. Whereas there is a good understanding of the geochemical behaviour of these other elements this is not the case for Cl and Br in the coal moisture. Chlorine and Br are thought to be conservative elements in the diagenetic evolution of the porewaters, in which an original marine depositional imprint could have been preserved. In some areas the porewaters may have fully evolved pre-Permian, whereas in other areas the diagenetic evolution could be much longer.     

海拉尔盆地贝尔凹陷含片钠铝石沉凝灰岩的成岩作用

以海拉尔盆地贝尔凹陷大磨拐河组-伊敏组的含片钠铝石火山碎屑岩为研究对象,采用偏光显微镜、扫描电镜及配套能谱、茜素红 S染色、阴极发光和X 射线衍射分析等技术手段,对研究样品的岩石类型、自生矿物种类及共生序列进行了详细研究。贝尔凹陷发育片钠铝石的宿主岩石类型为沉凝灰岩,自生矿物以发育片钠铝石、铁白云石和菱铁矿三种碳酸盐矿物为主,片钠铝石含量高达25%。成岩共生序列为菱铁矿Ⅰ→高岭石、石英次生加大→片钠铝石→微晶石英→方解石→铁白云石→菱铁矿Ⅱ→沥青。不同于国内外其它地区发现片钠铝石的主要产状为充填孔隙,本区内发育的片钠铝石以交代长石、石英、岩屑颗粒和高岭石基质为赋存特征,表明沉凝灰岩中的长石、岩屑、高岭石基质可以为其提供金属离子物质来源,并在CO2参与下,与成岩流体反应生成片钠铝石。大量碳酸盐矿物（15-44%）的发育证明了火山碎屑岩具有较高的CO2矿物捕获能力。     

利用测井交会图法定量表征致密油储层成岩相——以鄂尔多斯盆地华池地区长7致密油储层为例

根据岩芯观察并综合利用普通薄片、铸体薄片、阴极发光、扫描电镜等资料结合物性分析,对鄂尔多斯盆地华池地区长7致密油储层成岩作用、成岩矿物等进行了研究。根据储层成岩作用类型及强度、成岩矿物组合特征等,将研究区成岩相定性划分为不稳定组分溶蚀相、黏土矿物充填相、碳酸盐胶结相以及压实致密相四类。通过常规测井中对成岩相具有较高灵敏的伽马、密度、声波时差、补偿中子孔隙度、电阻率的测井曲线分析,利用密度-伽马交会图法进一步对四类成岩相进行定量划分,并建立研究区成岩相的测井定量识别标准。以华池地区城96井为例,其单井纵向的成岩相测井定量识别划分结果与取样点薄片鉴定结果、试油结论和物性分析等均具有良好的对应,验证了模型的可靠性。成岩相测井定量表征方法的研究,为后期致密油储层综合评价以及有利发育区带预测提供了理论指导和技术支持。     

川中蓬莱地区须家河组须二段储层成岩相与优质储集层预测

通过岩心观察并综合利用普通薄片、铸体薄片和扫描电镜分析等资料,对须二段储层岩石学特征、物性及孔隙结构特征、成岩作用、成岩矿物、成岩环境、所处成岩阶段和成岩演化序列等进行了研究。结果表明,须二段储层经历压实压溶、胶结、溶蚀和破裂等成岩作用,现今处于中成岩A 期。根据成岩作用类型和强度、成岩矿物及其对储层物性的影响划分出3种成岩相：强压实自生矿物胶结相、强压实不稳定组分溶蚀相和破碎裂缝相。选取了对成岩相较敏感的声波时差、电阻率、自然伽马、密度和中子5条常规测井曲线和成像测井资料,通过岩心资料刻度测井建立了各成岩相的测井识别标准,将成岩相进行剖面展开和平面成图。再根据有利成岩相的平面展布规律,对蓬莱地区须二段优质储层发育带进行了预测,认为平面上的斜坡中部为主要的优质储集层发育区。     

煤层显微煤岩类型与裂隙分布的关系

综合利用显微地层学和统计学方法,以河东煤田中北部8#煤层为例,研究了煤层显微煤岩类型与煤层裂隙分布的关系。结果表明,裂隙在不同显微煤岩类型煤体中的分布存在较大的差异,同时裂隙分布的位置与显微煤岩类型的组合序列有关。其结果对煤层气资源评价和煤层渗透性预测具有重要的指导意义。      

中国南方东部震旦纪碎屑岩和泥质岩成岩作用

中国南方震旦纪碎屑岩的成岩作用主要有压实和压溶、胶结和固结、重结晶、交代作用及自生矿物形成等,泥质岩的成岩作用主要为压实作用和成岩过程中粘土矿物的转化。其成岩过程可分为同生、成岩、后生、表生四个成岩作用阶段。在沉积盆地演化的不同阶段和处在盆地的不同部位,出现了不同的岩石类型,往往呈现各自的成岩作用变化特点。     

Geological controls on rock mass classification of coal from Huntly East Mine, New Zealand

Rock Mass Rating (RMR) measurements from 65 sites within Huntly East underground coal mine are presented. All measurements are in coal, for which the dominant discontinuities are vertical cleat. Basic RMR values using two discontinuity spacings are presented: overall RMR based on the average spacing of all individual discontinuities; and cleat zone RMR based on the average spacing between zones of cleat. Cleat orientations are highly variable, but on average approximately parallel horizontal stress axes (face cleat follows maximum horizontal stress axis, butt cleat follows minimum horizontal stress axis).Contours of RMR variations throughout the mine are used to compare rock mass conditions with geological structure. It is apparent that: (1) RMR is least within downthrown fault blocks, and particularly immediately on the downthrown sides of faults, and greatest in upthrown fault blocks; and (2) RMR contours parallel horizontal stress axes within fault-bounded blocks, and bend to parallel faults at block boundaries. From similar contours for parameters contributing to RMR, the Rock Quality Designation (RQD), groundwater rating, and discontinuity condition rating create most of the observed variations in RMR. RQD is determined from the measured discontinuity frequency and hence is a measure of the degree of fracturing of the rock mass. This is interpreted as influencing the groundwater and condition parameters directly by allowing greater water ingress. Discontinuity frequency is greatest (least spacing) in the immediate vicinity of faults, and in downthrown fault blocks, generating low RMR values. Within fault blocks RQD varies little, so RMR contours align with cleat orientations.As RMR contours, faults, stress field and cleat orientation are clearly interrelated, there is unequivocally a connection between RMR and structural geology; this allows some predictive capacity in terms of ground conditions. If geological features can be accurately defined through either drilling programs or seismic surveys, then ground conditions may be predicted before panels are driven.     

Anisotropy of gas permeability associated with cleat pattern in a coal seam of the Kushiro coalfield in Japan

An underground investigation has been performed in a subbituminous coal seam exhibiting a particular cleat pattern in the Kushiro coalfield, Japan. The coal cleat pattern shows some analogy to isolated straight joints, and is believed to have been formed during the late Tertiary period by a compressive tectonic stress, roughly in the east–west direction. Three cylindrical coal specimens representing the three orthogonal axes of the coal seam with respect to the bedding plane and its associated cleat were cored from a large block of coal. Gas permeabilities of the three coal specimens were measured under the same hydrostatic pressure conditions. Results clearly revealed anisotropy in permeability of the coal seam under relatively low confining pressures of less than about 12 MPa. The specimen cored parallel to both the bedding plane and cleat strike showed the highest permeability, even though the cleats were partly filled with calcite and clay minerals. The permeability in this direction was 2.5 times higher than perpendicular to the bedding plane, and 3 times higher than in the direction parallel to the bedding plane but perpendicular to the cleat strike. This suggests that the cleats play a greater role than bedding planes in controlling fluid flow in the coal seam. The permeability in the three orientations, however, converged to the same value at confining pressures above about 16 MPa. This may suggest that both cleats and bedding planes in a coal seam can close due to earth pressure if the coal seam is located below a certain depth. It further indicates that the traditional view that gas permeability is always greater parallel to the coal bedding than perpendicular to it should be reconsidered.     

姬塬地区长8油层组层序地层格架内成岩相展布特征

通过岩心观察并充分利用普通薄片、铸体薄片、阴极发光、X-衍射和扫描电镜等资料,对姬塬地区长8油层组储层的成岩作用、成岩矿物、成岩阶段和成岩演化序列特征等进行了研究。根据成岩作用类型及强度、成岩矿物等将储层划分为绿泥石衬边弱溶蚀、不稳定组分溶蚀、压实致密、高岭石充填和碳酸盐胶结5种成岩相。并通过岩心薄片资料刻度测井归纳出不同成岩相在GR、AC等测井曲线及其组合上的响应特征,由此实现各单井储层成岩相的连续划分。对长8油层组层序界面和基准面旋回与成岩相展布的关系进行了研究,结果表明层序界面附近不稳定组分溶蚀相及高岭石充填相较为发育,且各井之间对比性良好,同时层序界面也控制了碳酸盐胶结;中期基准面旋回的最大湖泛面处均发育井间可对比的压实致密相,长82中期基准面下降半旋回砂体一方面易于遭受溶蚀产生次生孔,另一方面由于受沉积驻留和碎屑组分影响导致压实强度较弱,因此物性总体比长81砂体好。     

贵州六枝郎岱地区上二叠统玄武岩屑砂岩成岩特征与自生矿物的成因

本文在叙述玄武岩屑砂岩成岩序列的基础上,依据多种实验分析手段所获得的资料,对其成岩阶段和环境作了划分,并讨论了含Ti-Fe蒙脱石、绿泥石、菱铁矿、铁白云石、铁方解石等自生矿物的成因。它们的形成受控于下列因素的综合作用:1)砂岩的成分和结构;2)沉积层间的组合特征;3)有机质的还原作用和热成熟作用;4)粘土岩中粘土矿物的脱水和转化作用;5)温度和孔隙的水的酸、碱度;6)压实作用。     

Diagenesis of the Lower Cretaceous Kanmon Group sandstones, SW Japan

The Kanmon Group (Lower Cretaceous) is a non-marine sequence in the Inner Zone of southwest Japan and is divided into the lower Wakino (lacustrine) and the upper Shimonoseki (fluvial) subgroups. Major diagenetic changes in this group are compaction, iron-oxide cementation, calcite cementation and grain replacement, quartz overgrowth and pore-fill cementation, illite authigenesis, chlorite pore-fill cementation and grain replacement, albitization of feldspar, and grain replacement by pyrite. Two subgroups of the Kanmon Group present no significant differences in general diagenetic features, paragenetic sequence, or the degree of diagenetic changes despite differences in depositional environments (lacustrine vs. fluvial) and stratigraphic positions. However, some differences are recognized in the content and chemistry of authigenic minerals caused by different sandstone framework compositions. The content of authigenic clay minerals is higher in sandstones of the Shimonoseki Subgroup containing abundant volcanic rock fragments. In addition, the composition of chlorite, the most abundant authigenic clay mineral in Kanmon sandstones, is Mg-rich in the volcanoclastic Shimonoseki sandstones, compared to an Fe-rich variety in Wakino sandstones. The original sandstone composition played a significant role in pore-water composition and diagenetic reactions.The Wakino sandstones lost most of its porosity by compaction, whereas Shimonoseki sandstones are only compacted in the vicinity of the basin-bounding fault. The weakly compacted Shimonoseki sandstones, instead, were largely cemented by pore-filling calcite during early diagenesis; cementation prevented compaction during further burial. The Kanmon Group sediments were heated to about 300 °C based on illite crystallinity values.     

CO2矿物捕获能力的研究进展

全球碳存储的研究表明, CO2最稳定的存储方式是 CO2的矿物捕获, 即将 CO2注入到地下,使其以方解石、菱铁矿、白云石及片钠铝石等碳酸盐矿物的形式存在.适合 CO2矿物捕获的岩石类型主要有火山岩、砂岩和火山碎屑岩.分析了3种岩石类型的金属元素含量、金属元素的释放能力、与 CO2反应生成的矿物类型及对 CO2的捕获量,并比较了3种岩石类型对 CO2矿物捕获能力的差异.其中玄武岩等火山岩的金属离子含量高,但其孔隙空间有限,制约了成岩反应,且 CO2注入后具有逸散的风险;砂岩分布广泛,有足够的孔隙利于流体注入,但是金属离子含量相对较低,对 CO2的矿物捕获所需时间相对较长;火山碎屑岩则结合了前2种岩石类型在矿物捕获方面的优势,是一种理想的 CO2矿物捕获的岩石类型.