Atmospheric angular momentum variations of Earth, Mars and Venus at seasonal time scales

Atmospheric angular momentum variations of a planet are associated with the global atmospheric mass redistribution and the wind variability. The exchange of angular momentum between the fluid layers and the solid planet is the main cause for the variations of the planetary rotation at seasonal time scales. In the present study, we investigate the angular momentum variations of the Earth, Mars and Venus, using geodetic observations, output of state-of-the-art global circulation models as well as assimilated data. We discuss the similarities and differences in angular momentum variations, planetary rotation and angular momentum exchange for the three terrestrial planets. We show that the atmospheric angular momentum variations for Mars and Earth are mainly annual and semi-annual whereas they are expected to be “diurnal” on Venus. The wind terms have the largest contributions to the LOD changes of the Earth and Venus whereas the matter term is dominant on Mars due to the CO₂ sublimation/condensation. The corresponding LOD variations (ΔLOD) have similar amplitudes on Mars and Earth but are much larger on Venus, though more difficult to observe.     

Morphometric comparison of braided Martian channels and some braided terrestial features

Large channels on the Martian surface have been variously attributed to erosional, volcanic, and tectonic processes. Morphometric information shows that large braided Martian channels and islands between those channels are similar in their dimensions to channels and islands of large braided fluvial features on Earth. The information also suggests that braided fractures in solid materials are fundamentally different in morphometry from braided channels of Earth and Mars. Braided tension fractures have characteristically low braiding indices and are much narrower than their irregularly shaped “midchannel” islands. Terrestrial and Martian channels, in contrast, have high braiding indices, and they are wider than their streamlined midchannel islands. Braided volcanic features are known from the earth and the moon, but the absence of volcanic constructs near the large braided channels on Mars indicates that volcanic origin is unlikely. The morphometric information suggests that braided Martian channels are probably of fluvial origin.     

Lander radioscience for obtaining the rotation and orientation of Mars

The paper presents the concept, the objectives, the approach used, and the expected performances and accuracies of a radioscience experiment based on a radio link between the Earth and the surface of Mars. This experiment involves radioscience equipment installed on a lander at the surface of Mars. The experiment with the generic name lander radioscience (LaRa) consists of an X-band transponder that has been designed to obtain, over at least one Martian year, two-way Doppler measurements from the radio link between the ExoMars lander and the Earth (ExoMars is an ESA mission to Mars due to launch in 2013). These Doppler measurements will be used to obtain Mars’ orientation in space and rotation (precession and nutations, and length-of-day variations). More specifically, the relative position of the lander on the surface of Mars with respect to the Earth ground stations allows reconstructing Mars’ time varying orientation and rotation in space.Precession will be determined with an accuracy better by a factor of 4 (better than the 0.1% level) with respect to the present-day accuracy after only a few months at the Martian surface. This precession determination will, in turn, improve the determination of the moment of inertia of the whole planet (mantle plus core) and the radius of the core: for a specific interior composition or even for a range of possible compositions, the core radius is expected to be determined with a precision decreasing to a few tens of kilometers.A fairly precise measurement of variations in the orientation of Mars’ spin axis will enable, in addition to the determination of the moment of inertia of the core, an even better determination of the size of the core via the core resonance in the nutation amplitudes. When the core is liquid, the free core nutation (FCN) resonance induces a change in the nutation amplitudes, with respect to their values for a solid planet, at the percent level in the large semi-annual prograde nutation amplitude and even more (a few percent, a few tens of percent or more, depending on the FCN period) for the retrograde ter-annual nutation amplitude. The resonance amplification depends on the size, moment of inertia, and flattening of the core. For a large core, the amplification can be very large, ensuring the detection of the FCN, and determination of the core moment of inertia.The measurement of variations in Mars’ rotation also determines variations of the angular momentum due to seasonal mass transfer between the atmosphere and ice caps. Observations even for a short period of 180 days at the surface of Mars will decrease the uncertainty by a factor of two with respect to the present knowledge of these quantities (at the 10% level).The ultimate objectives of the proposed experiment are to obtain information on Mars’ interior and on the sublimation/condensation of CO₂ in Mars’ atmosphere. Improved knowledge of the interior will help us to better understand the formation and evolution of Mars. Improved knowledge of the CO₂ sublimation/condensation cycle will enable better understanding of the circulation and dynamics of Mars’ atmosphere.     

Issues and options for a Martian calendar

In the past 125 years, more than 70 authors have published ideas for keeping time on Mars, describing how to divide the Martian day and Martian year into smaller units. The Martian prime meridian was established in the mid-19th century, and the design of the Martian clock has been standardised at least since the Viking missions of the 1970s. Scientists can tell time on Mars; however, despite the constant stream of data that is downlinked from Mars these days, there is still no standardised system for expressing the date on Mars. Establishing a standard epoch—at a specific time of year on Mars, and a specific Martian year—should be the next priority in Martian timekeeping as a minimal system required for the physical sciences. More elaborate ideas, including the number and length of weeks and months, and names thereto, can be deferred for the present, but may become important considerations in coming years.     

The provenance,formation, and implications of reduced carbon phases in Martian meteorites

This review is intended to summarize the current observations of reduced carbon in Martian meteorites, differentiating between terrestrial contamination and carbon that is indigenous to Mars. Indeed, the identification of Martian organic matter is among the highest priority targets for robotic spacecraft missions in the next decade, including the Mars Science Laboratory and Mars 2020. Organic carbon compounds are essential building blocks of terrestrial life, so the occurrence and origin (biotic or abiotic) of organic compounds on Mars is of great significance; however, not all forms of reduced carbon are conducive to biological systems. This paper discusses the significance of reduced organic carbon (including methane) in Martian geological and astrobiological systems. Specifically, it summarizes current thinking on the nature, sources, and sinks of Martian organic carbon, a key component to Martian habitability. Based on this compilation, reduced organic carbon on Mars, including detections of methane in the Martian atmosphere, is best described through a combination of abiotic organic synthesis on Mars and infall of extraterrestrial carbonaceous material. Although conclusive signs of Martian life have yet to be revealed, we have developed a strategy for life detection on Mars that can be utilized in future life‐detection studies.     

Hydrogen isotopic composition of the Martian mantle inferred from the newest Martian meteorite fall,Tissint

The hydrogen isotopic composition of planetary reservoirs can provide key constraints on the origin and history of water on planets. The sources of water and the hydrological evolution of Mars may be inferred from the hydrogen isotopic compositions of mineral phases in Martian meteorites, which are currently the only samples of Mars available for Earth‐based laboratory investigations. Previous studies have shown that δD values in minerals in the Martian meteorites span a large range of ?250 to +6000‰. The highest hydrogen isotope ratios likely represent a Martian atmospheric component: either interaction with a reservoir in equilibrium with the Martian atmosphere (such as crustal water), or direct incorporation of the Martian atmosphere due to shock processes. The lowest δD values may represent those of the Martian mantle, but it has also been suggested that these values may represent terrestrial contamination in Martian meteorites. Here we report the hydrogen isotopic compositions and water contents of a variety of phases (merrillites, maskelynites, olivines, and an olivine‐hosted melt inclusion) in Tissint, the latest Martian meteorite fall that was minimally exposed to the terrestrial environment. We compared traditional sample preparation techniques with anhydrous sample preparation methods, to evaluate their effects on hydrogen isotopes, and find that for severely shocked meteorites like Tissint, the traditional sample preparation techniques increase water content and alter the D/H ratios toward more terrestrial‐like values. In the anhydrously prepared Tissint sample, we see a large range of δD values, most likely resulting from a combination of processes including magmatic degassing, secondary alteration by crustal fluids, shock‐related fractionation, and implantation of Martian atmosphere. Based on these data, our best estimate of the δD value for the Martian depleted mantle is ?116 ± 94‰, which is the lowest value measured in a phase in the anhydrously prepared section of Tissint. This value is similar to that of the terrestrial upper mantle, suggesting that water on Mars and Earth was derived from similar sources. The water contents of phases in Tissint are highly variable, and have been affected by secondary processes. Considering the H₂O abundances reported here in the driest phases (most likely representing primary igneous compositions) and appropriate partition coefficients, we estimate the H₂O content of the Tissint parent magma to be ≤0.2 wt%.     

Escape Of Planetary Atmospheres Including The Effects Of Rotation And Orbital Motion Of The Planet

The problem of escape of planetary atmospheres is discussed taking into account the effects of planet's rotation and planet's orbital momentum. The expressions for the rates of loss of mass and angular momentum per unit area and the total rates of loss of mass and angular momentum for the whole planetary surface are obtained. These expressions are, then, applied to study the escape of the constituents of the atmospheres of Mars and Venus. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

A morphological view on potential niches for exobiology on Mars

The discovery of microbiota in the Dry Valleys of Antarctica has encouraged the construction of new models of Martian ecosystems in order to determine if life could have once existed on Mars. The Antarctic cyanobacteria reside just below the surface of sandstone rocks where they are protected from the extreme cold and dry environment. Analogy with the Antarctic Dry Valleys supports speculation that hypothetical micro-organisms existed on Mars in the early history of the planet and could have migrated into suitable rocks as the availability of liquid water decreased. Although evidence for sandstone layers on Mars has not been substantiated, the palaeohydrology of Martian fluvial valleys (MFVs) reveals the evidence of lake bed sediment depositions which have formed consolidated sediments. As the MFVs formation may result from underground drainage processes, the sediment material would be expected to contain debris such as pumice washload, and pumilith of volcanic and meteoritic origin. These materials may have formed consolidated porous terrains similar to the Antarctic sandstone. Therefore, the endolithic model is consistent with the Martian liquid water habitat model of perenially ice-covered lakes.     

The prospects for life on Mars: A pre-Viking assessment

Mariner 9 has provided a refutation or reinterpretation of several historical claims for Martian biology, and has permitted an important further characterization of the environmental constraints on possible Martian organisms. Four classes of conceivable Martian organisms are identified, depending on the environmental temperature, T, and water activity, a_w: Class I, high T, high a_w; Class II, low T, high a_w; Class III, high T, low a_w; and Class IV, low T, low a_w. The Viking lander biology experiments are essentially oriented toward Class I organisms, although arguments are given for the conceivable presence on Mars of organisms in any of the four classes. Organisms which extract their water requirements from hydrated minerals or from ice are considered possible on Mars, and the high ultraviolet flux and low oxygen partial pressure are considered to be negligible impediments to Martian biology. Large organisms, possibly detectable by the Viking lander cameras, are not only possible on Mars; they may be favored. The surface distribution of Martian organisms and future search strategies for life on Mars are discussed.     

Orbital observations of meteors in the Martian atmosphere using the SPOSH camera

We investigate the expected performance of a wide-angle camera in Martian orbit, which, unlike previous cameras that have flown to Mars, is capable of recording meteor activity in that planet's atmosphere. We show that, based on our current understanding of meteor physics and the interplanetary meteoroid population, several meteors will be detected by this instrument during a single nightside pass on a low Martian orbit. The instrument will also record the signatures of meteor showers expected to occur every Martian year (1.88 Earth years). The results of this investigation will test models of the flux of “large” (mm-cm) meteoroids at the orbit of Mars and their interaction with the Martian atmosphere.     

Microbial life in martian ice: A biotic origin of methane on Mars?

Despite the fact that microbial cells are unlikely to be found in the Martian soil in the near future, this paper is written on the assumption that some of the seasonally varying concentration of Martian methane is due to ongoing methanogenesis. It is first pointed out that life might have arisen on Mars first and been transported to Earth later. A case is made that an icy origin of life is more likely than a hot origin, especially if biomolecules take advantage of the high encounter rates and stability against hydrolysis, and that microorganisms feed on the ions that comprise eutectic solutions in ice. Although certain difficulties are avoided if RNA and DNA grow while adsorbed on clay grains, double strand-breaks of microbial DNA due to alpha radioactivity are a far greater threat to microbial survival on clay or other rock types than in ice. Developing a relation between the rate of microbial metabolism in ice and the experimentally determined rate of production of trapped gases of microbial origin, one can estimate the concentration of methanogens that could account for the methane production rate as a function of temperature of their habitat. The result, of order 1 cell cm⁻³ in the Martian subsurface, seems an attainable goal provided samples are taken from at least 1 or 2 m below the hostile surface of Mars. Instruments on NASA’s 2011 Mars Science Lab will measure stable isotopes for methane, water, and carbon dioxide, which on Earth served to distinguish abiotic, thermogenic, and microbial origins. Future measurements of chirality of biomolecules might also provide evidence for Martian life.     

Orbital history of the Martian satellites with inferences on their origin

Recent Viking results indicate the Martian satellites are composed of carbonaceous chondritic material, suggesting that Phobos and Deimos were once asteroids captured by Mars. On the other hand, the low eccentricities and inclinations of their orbits on the equator of Mars argue against that hypothesis. This paper presents detailed calculations of the tidal evolution of Phobos and Deimos, considering dissipation in both Mars and its satellites simultaneously and using a new method applicable for any value of the eccentricity. In particular, including precession of the satellites' orbits indicates that they have always remained close to their Laplacian plane, so that the orbital planes of Phobos and Deimos switched from near the Martian orbital plane to the Martian equator once the perturbations due to the planetary oblateness dominated the solar perturbations, as they do presently. The results show that Deimos has been little affected by tides, but several billion (10⁹) years ago, Phobos was in a highly eccentric orbit lying near the common plane of the solar system. This outcome is obtained for very reasonable values of dissipation inside Mars and inside Phobos. Implications for the origin of the Martian satellites are discussed.     

Suprathermal oxygen atoms in the Martian upper atmosphere: Contribution of the proton and hydrogen atom precipitation

This is a study of the kinetics and transport of hot oxygen atoms in the transition region (from the thermosphere to the exosphere) of the Martian upper atmosphere. It is assumed that the source of the hot oxygen atoms is the transfer of momentum and energy in elastic collisions between thermal atmospheric oxygen atoms and the high-energy protons and hydrogen atoms precipitating onto the Martian upper atmosphere from the solar-wind plasma. The distribution functions of suprathermal oxygen atoms by the kinetic energy are calculated. It is shown that the exosphere is populated by a large number of suprathermal oxygen atoms with kinetic energies up to the escape energy 2 eV; i.e., a hot oxygen corona is formed around Mars. The transfer of energy from the precipitating solar-wind plasma protons and hydrogen atoms to the thermal oxygen atoms leads to the formation of an additional nonthermal escape flux of atomic oxygen from the Martian atmosphere. The precipitation-induced escape flux of hot oxygen atoms may become dominant under the conditions of extreme solar events, such as solar flares and coronal mass ejections, as shown by recent observations onboard NASA’s MAVEN spacecraft (Jakosky et al., 2015).     

Drilling in ancient permafrost on Mars for evidence of a second genesis of life

If life ever existed on Mars, a key question is the genetic relationship of that life to life on Earth. To determine if Martian life represents a separate, second genesis of life requires the analysis of organisms, not fossils. Ancient permafrost on Mars represents one potential source of intact, albeit probably dead by radiation, Martian organisms. Strong crustal magnetism in the ancient heavily cratered southern highlands between 60 and 80°S and at about 180°W indicates what may be the oldest, best preserved ice-rich permafrost on Mars. Drilling to depths of 1000 m would reach samples unaffected by possible warming due to cyclic changes in Mars’ obliquity. When drilling into the permafrost to retrieve ancient intact Martian organisms, it is necessary to take special precautions to avoid the possibility of contamination. Earth permafrost provides an analog for Martian permafrost and convenient sites for instrument development and field testing.     

TOF‐SIMS analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Allan Hills 84001

Abstract— The presence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the Martian meteorite Allan Hills 84001 (ALH 84001) was considered to be a major sign of ancient biogenic activity on planet Mars (McKay et al. 1996). An asserted spatial association of PAHs with carbonates, carriers of so‐called nanofossils, was crucial for their suggested connection to early life forms. Although both observations can be explained individually without employing living organisms, a lateral correlation of PAHs and carbonates would suggest a genetic link between PAHs and the microstructures, favoring a biogenic explanation. On the other hand, without such a correlation, a biogenic or even a Martian origin of the PAHs cannot be inferred. Here we show that there is no correlation of PAHs and carbonates in ALH 84001. Furthermore, a general trend of high PAH concentrations at locations where terrestrial lead is present obviously suggests a terrestrial origin for PAHs in ALH 84001.     

Martian cratering 12. Utilizing primary crater clusters to study crater populations and meteoroid properties

Images from Mars Global Surveyor and later images from Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter reveal that roughly half of the meteoroids striking Mars (at meter to few decameter crater diameters) fragment in the Martian atmosphere, producing small clusters of primary impact craters. Statistics of these “primary clusters” yield valuable information about important Martian phenomena and properties of interplanetary bodies, including meteoroid behavior in the Martian atmosphere, bulk strengths of bodies striking Mars, and the fraction of Martian “field secondary” craters, a datum that would improve crater count chronometry. Many Martian impactors fragment at altitudes significantly higher than 18 km above the mean surface of Mars, and we find that most bodies striking Mars and Earth have low bulk strengths, consistent with crumbly or highly fractured objects. Applying statistics of primary clusters at various elevations and independent diameter bins, we describe a technique to estimate the percentage of semirandomly scattered “field secondary” craters. Our provisional estimate of this percentage, in the diameter range ~250 m down to ~22 m, is ~40% to ~80% of the total impacts, with the higher percentages at smaller diameters. Our data argue against earlier suggestions of overwhelming dominance by either primaries or secondaries in this diameter range.     

Could organic matter have been preserved on Mars for 3.5 billion years?

3.5 billion years (byr) ago, when it is thought that Mars and Earth had similar climates, biological evolution on Earth had made considerable progress, such that life was abundant. It is therefore surmised that prior to this time period the advent of chemical evolution and subsequent origin of life occurred on Earth and may have occurred on Mars. Analysis for organic compounds in the soil buried beneath the Martian surface may yield useful information regarding the occurrence of chemical evolution and possibly biological evolution. Calculations based on the stability of amino acids lead to the conclusion that remnants of these compounds, if they existed on Mars 3.5 byr ago, might have been preserved buried beneath the surface oxidizing layer. For example, if phenylalanine, an amino acid of average stability, existed on Mars 3.5 byr ago, then 1.6% would remain buried today, or 25 pg-2.5 ng of C g-1 Martian soil may exist from remnants of meteoritic and cometary bombardment, assuming that 1% of the organics survived impact.     

Accurate Mars Express orbits to improve the determination of the mass and ephemeris of the Martian moons

The determination of the ephemeris of the Martian moons has benefited from observations of their plane-of-sky positions derived from images taken by cameras onboard spacecraft orbiting Mars. Images obtained by the Super Resolution Camera (SRC) onboard Mars Express (MEX) have been used to derive moon positions relative to Mars on the basis of a fit of a complete dynamical model of their motion around Mars. Since, these positions are computed from the relative position of the spacecraft when the images are taken, those positions need to be known as accurately as possible. An accurate MEX orbit is obtained by fitting two years of tracking data of the Mars Express Radio Science (MaRS) experiment onboard MEX. The average accuracy of the orbits has been estimated to be around 20–25 m. From these orbits, we have re-derived the positions of Phobos and Deimos at the epoch of the SRC observations and compared them with the positions derived by using the MEX orbits provided by the ESOC navigation team. After fit of the orbital model of Phobos and Deimos, the gain in precision in the Phobos position is roughly 30 m, corresponding to the estimated gain of accuracy of the MEX orbits. A new solution of the GM of the Martian moons has also been obtained from the accurate MEX orbits, which is consistent with previous solutions and, for Phobos, is more precise than the solution from the Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) and Mars Odyssey (ODY) tracking data. It will be further improved with data from MEX-Phobos closer encounters (at a distance less than 300 km). This study also demonstrates the advantage of combining observations of the moon positions from a spacecraft and from the Earth to assess the real accuracy of the spacecraft orbit. In turn, the natural satellite ephemerides can be improved and participate to a better knowledge of the origin and evolution of the Martian moons.     

The role of porosity in thermal inertia variations on basaltic lavas

Thermal inertia is inversely proportional to porosity for Hawaiian basalts. Extreme porosities (>80%) are required if the observed low thermal inertias on the Martian shield volcanoes are the result of pristine lava flow surface properties. Such volcanic surfaces are anticipated to have a short lifetime in the Martian environment, and an aeolian origin appears to be the most likely interpretation of the thermal measurements on Mars.     

Martian cratering VI: Crater count isochrons and evidence for recent volcanism from Mars Global Surveyor

Abstract— This paper develops a methodology to establish absolute Martian ages by deriving isochrons on a plot of Martian impact crater density vs. crater diameter, calibrated by lunar crater/age data. The isochrons illustrated here are based on a Mars/Moon cratering ratio of 1.6 at constant size, but there is a factor of 2 to 4 uncertainty in this ratio and the consequent model ages. Martian crater diameter distributions are determined in several areas down to diameter D = 16–45 m; the shapes of the curves in young areas are found to be close to that of the predicted isochrons and close to the standard production function found by Neukum. The youngest areas studied here display the lunar-like production function down to D ～30 m, where saturation equilibrium sets in. Model crater retention ages of several volcanic units are found to be a few hundred million years or less, with estimated uncertainties ranging from a factor of 2 lower to a factor of 4 higher. The results are consistent with Martian meteorite ages. Volcanism on Mars has probably persisted into the last 10 to 15% of the planet's history and is likely ongoing. Because surfaces as young as a few hundred million years have reached crater saturation equilibrium at D < ～60 to 100 m, Mars is likely to have widespread impact-produced regoliths at least a few meters deep, and this may contribute to the widespread mobile dust and boulder fields of Mars.