A review of ten years of triggered-lightning experiments at Camp Blanding, Florida

The principal results of triggered-lightning experiments conducted at the International Center for Lightning Research and Testing (ICLRT) at Camp Blanding, Florida, from 1993 through 2002 are reviewed. These results include (a) characterization of the close lightning electromagnetic environment, (b) first lightning return-stroke speed profiles within 400 m of ground, (c) new insights into the mechanism of the dart-stepped (and by inference stepped) leader, (d) identification of the M-component mode of charge transfer to ground, (e) first optical image of upward connecting leader in triggered-lightning strokes, (f) electric fields in the immediate vicinity of the lightning channel, (g) inferences on the interaction of lightning with ground and with grounding electrodes, (h) discovery of X-rays produced by triggered-lightning strokes, (i) new insights into the mechanism of cutoff and reestablishment of current in rocket-triggered lightning. Selected results are discussed.     

地面建筑物对地闪回击通道附近电磁辐射环境的影响

采用有限电导率下的时域有限差分（FDTD）方法,分析了建筑物对地闪回击电磁环境的影响.结果发现建筑物对回击电场的影响较为明显,对磁场影响较小,建筑物高度h_b=50 m时对磁场的影响不大于10%.建筑物顶部电场受自身高度的影响较大,屋顶中部的垂直电场随建筑物高度的增加而增大,水平电场随建筑物高度的增加而减小.建筑物高度为20、50和100 m时,屋顶中部的垂直电场分别约为地面处的1.3、1.7和2倍,水平电场约为地面处的0.9、0.8和0.7.电导率分别取0.001和0.1 s/m时对比发现,地表处的水平电场受电导率的影响较大,电导率越大,地表处水平电场的幅值越小,此时建筑物的存在对其影响不明显.地表以上一定高度处的水平电场则受观测点位置和建筑物的影响更加明显.     

地面电晕离子对空中引雷始发过程的影响

利用已建立的“地面电晕离子的演化模式”对甘肃省平凉地区一次雷暴过程的空中电荷密度和环境电场的演化情况进行了模拟,发现地面尖端产生的电晕离子如果不被俘获便可在１ｍｉｎ左右内到达５００ｍ的高度上。对空中引雷火箭发射前的空中电场分析表明,引雷成功的关键除有足够长的导线以使导线两端的电场产生畸变外,另一个重要的条件是火箭－导线系统顶端能处于强的环境电场中以满足顶部流光的产生和持续传输。另外,低空较强的环境电场对火箭－导线系统下端下行流光的发展和空气间隙的击穿有重要的促进作用。一次空中引雷触发高度上的电场大于５０．０ｋＶ／ｍ,火箭－导线系统下行正流光持续传输的电场值为１９．０ｋＶ／ｍ,放电过程首先起始于火箭－导线系统下端正流光的产生。根据多年的实验资料,建议实际引雷试验时,以５００ｍ高度上的电场为参考来决定火箭的发射时刻,北方雷暴大于５０ｋＶ／ｍ,南方雷暴大于２５ｋＶ／ｍ。     

The Electric Field During Blowing Snow Events

A model is proposed to determine the electric field strength in blowing snow. To test this model, the electric field strength was measured over an 80-day period during the Canadian Arctic Shelf Exchange Study (CASES) in 2004. The electric field strength at 0.5 m correlates well with the difference between 10-m wind speed and a threshold wind speed, although there is a large amount of variation between the electric fields generated during different blowing snow events. Although the model predicts that the electric field should be proportional to particle number density, the correlation is weak. The correlation of wind speed and electric field strength suggests that particles become charged primarily due to friction-induced temperature difference as they impact upon the surface. The strength of the electric field is likely influenced by a large number of other factors that are difficult to measure. However, the model predicts electric field strengths in excess of 25 kV m⁻¹ near the surface, which would have a significant effect on particle motion.     

Analysis of Channel Luminosity Characteristics in Rocket-Triggered Lightning

A comparison is made of the high-speed （2000 fps） lightning between two techniques. The analysis shows （UPL） in altitude-triggered negative lightning （ATNL） photographic records in rocket-triggered negative that： the initial speed of upward positive leader is about one order of magnitude less than that in classically triggered negative lightning （CTNL）, while the triggering height of ATNL is higher than that of CTNL; the afterglow time of metal-vaporized part of the lightning channel can endure for about 160-170 ms, thus the luminosity of the air-ionized part can reflect the characteristics of the current in the lightning channel better than that of the metal-vaporized part. According to the different characteristics of the luminosity change of the lightning channel, together with the observation of the electric field changes, three kinds of processes after return-stroke （RS） can be distinguished： the continuous decaying type without M component, the isolated type and the continuing type with M component, corresponding to different wave shapes of the continuous current. The geometric mean of the interval of RS with M component is 77 ms, longer than that （37 ms） of RS without M component. And the initial continuous current （ICC） with M component also has a longer duration compared to the ICC without M component. The distinction in the relative luminosity between the lightning channel before RS and that before M component is obvious： the former is very weak or even cannot be observed, while the latter is still considerably luminous.     

雷暴下的电流密度测量和准稳态特性讨论

利用电场和麦克斯韦电流密度的同时测量，对雷暴下闪电间的麦克斯韦电流密度的准稳态特性进行了验证，并利用实验观测和模式计算相结合的方法，对传导电流、位移电流和电晕电流的相对重要性作了估计。     

火箭触发闪电通道的亮度特征分析

利用成像速率为2000幅/s的高速摄像资料,对采用不同触发方式的两次负极性闪电进行了对比分析,结果表明:空中触发方式的上行正先导的起始速度比经典触发方式的低一个量级左右,而前者的触发高度要比后者的高;闪电通道中金属导线汽化部分的余晖时间可达160—170 ms,相对来说,空气离化部分的亮度信息更能真实体现闪电通道中的电流特性。依据闪电通道亮度变化特性的差异,并结合电场变化的观测,可以将回击之后的过程分为3种类型,没有M分量的为连续衰减型,有M分量的可分为独立型和延续型两种,能够与不同类型的延续电流波形相对应。总体上看,有M分量的回击间隔比没有M分量的要长,几何平均值分别为77 ms和37 ms,有M分量的初始连续电流也会比没有M分量的持续更长的时间。回击和M分量发生前闪电通道的相对亮度存在明显的差异,回击前闪电通道的相对亮度很弱,甚至观测不到任何发光现象,而M分量发生前闪电通道仍有较强的发光。     

Inland and Offshore Propagation Speeds of a Sea Breeze from Simulations and Measurements

The inland and offshore propagation speeds of a sea breeze circulation cell are simulated using a three-dimensional hydrostatic model within a terrain-following coordinate system. The model includes a third-order semi-Lagrangian advection scheme, which compares well in a one-dimensional stand-alone test with the more complex Bott and Smolarkiewicz advection schemes. Two turbulence schemes are available: a local scheme by Louis (1979) and a modified non-local scheme based on Zhang and Anthes (1982). Both compare well with higher-order closure schemes using the Wangara data set for Day 33–34 (Clark et al., 1971).Two-dimensional cross-sections derived from airborne sea breeze measurements (Finkele et al. 1995) constitute the basis for comparison with two-dimensional numerical model results. The offshore sea breeze propagation speed is defined as the speed at which the seaward extent of the sea breeze grows offshore. On a study day, the offshore sea breeze propagation speed, from both measurements and model, is -3.4 m s^-1. The measured inland propagation speed of the sea breeze decreased somewhat during the day. The model results show a fairly uniform inland propagation speed of 1.6 m s^-1 which corresponds to the average measured value. The offshore sea breeze propagation speed is about twice the inland propagation speed for this particular case study, from both the model and measurements.The influence of the offshore geostrophic wind on the sea breeze evolution, offshore extent and inland penetration are investigated. For moderate offshore geostrophic winds (-5.0 m s^-1), the offshore and inland propagation speeds are non-uniform. The offshore extent in moderate geostrophic wind conditions is similar to the offshore extent in light wind conditions (-2.5 m s^-1). The inland extent is greater in light offshore geostrophic winds than in moderate ones. This suggests that the offshore extent of the sea breeze is less sensitive to the offshore geostrophic wind than its inland extent. However, these results hold only if it is possible to define an inland propagation speed. For stronger offshore geostrophic winds (-7.5 m s^-1), the sea breeze is completely offshore and the inland propagation speed is ill-defined.     

Characteristics and simulation of lightning current waveforms during one artificially triggered lightning

In the summer of 2005, one negative lightning flash was artificially triggered in Shandong Province (117°48′ E, 37°42′N), middle latitude region of eastern China. The flash included 10 return strokes, and the geometric mean value of the current peak was 11.9 kA (the average value was 12.6 kA) with a maximum of 21.0 kA and a minimum of 6.6 kA, similar to the subsequent return strokes in natural lightning. The geometric mean value of half peak width was 39 μs (the average value was 40 μs), which was much larger than the usual result. Based on the Diendorfer and Uman (DU) model, the return-stroke current waveforms and charge distribution along the lightning channel are discussed. The simulated current waveforms, being divided into breakdown and corona current components, are in agreement with the optical measurements when the two different discharge time constants are properly chosen.     

In situ measurements of contributions to the global electrical circuit by a thunderstorm in southeastern Brazil

The global electrical circuit, which maintains a potential of about 280 kV between the earth and the ionosphere, is thought to be driven mainly by thunderstorms and lightning. However, very few in situ measurements of electrical current above thunderstorms have been successfully obtained. In this paper, we present dc to very low frequency electric fields and atmospheric conductivity measured in the stratosphere (30–35 km altitude) above an active thunderstorm in southeastern Brazil. From these measurements, we estimate the mean quasi-static conduction current during the storm period to be 2.5 ± 1.25 A. Additionally, we examine the transient conduction currents following a large positive cloud-to-ground (+ CG) lightning flash and typical − CG flashes. We find that the majority of the total current is attributed to the quasi-static thundercloud charge, rather than lightning, which supports the classical Wilson model for the global electrical circuit.     

消雷器电晕电流的测量和理论分析

迄今为止,“消雷器”产生的电晕电流及其“消雷”机理尚有争论。本文利用一种“消雷器”实测电晕电流和电场强度,并根据一次闪电后地面电场恢复特征,从理论上估算了恢复时段内电晕电流密度。结果表明,即使在电场恢复到较为稳定的时刻,测量值仍比理论值约大一个量级,而理论值和地面自然尖端产生的电晕电流在量级上相当,“消雷器”产生的电晕电流不会高于自然尖端的作用。此外,“消雷器”结构（强局地表面电场、较大电晕有效面     

空中触发闪电的下行先导及其接地行为

１９９６年夏季在江西南昌附进行的人工触发闪电野外实验中,用新开发的不接地的火箭－导线技术成功地在雷暴云下的负环境电场中触发了云对地产偿电。我们用一套成像率为１０００幅／秒的高速数字化摄像系统对下行负先导进行了观测。     

Measurements and simulation of the M-component current and simultaneous electromagnetic fields at 60 m and 550 m

Simultaneous measurements of the M-component current (surges superimposed on lightning continuing currents) and the corresponding electromagnetic fields at 60 m and 550 m from the lightning channel are analyzed and simulated with a two-wave model. The measured results reveal that the M-component current at the bottom of the channel exhibits a V-shape character with a leading edge of 78 μs and a trailing edge of 194 μs, while the electric field pulses at 60 m and 550 m have trailing edges faster than leading edges. The peak of the M-component current lags behind the electric field peak by tens of microseconds, when the distance increases to 550 m, the disparity of the time shift increases as well. However, the waveshape of the M-component current is similar to that of the magnetic field pulse. The M-component electric fields at 60 m and 550 m are 1.16 kV/m and 0.17 kV/m, respectively, and exhibit a logarithmic distance dependence which implies that the M-component charge density increases with height. Additionally, a two-wave model is used to examine the sensitivity of the predicted electric and magnetic fields to the speed and current reflection coefficient variations of the M-component. The simulated results show that the effects are different for the electric and magnetic fields. The M-component speed essentially controls the electric field, but has little effect on the magnetic field. Larger reflection coefficient results in a larger magnetic field, but a smaller electric field.     

常州用电负荷量气象指数初探

分析了常州市1998－1999年全市用电量变化特征，建立与其关系密切的最高气温、最低气温、相对湿度、天气状况等气象要素之间的关系，得出其回归计算方程，并分析引起用电量变化的非气象要素，将得到的预报结果进行订正。通过检验、分析，最后确定了用电负荷量指数的划分标准。     

闪电先导静电场波形理论分析

通过对地闪电先导过程静电场变化波形的理论分析指出，先导所致静电场时间变化率dE/dt是一个比静电场变化ΔE更能反映先导传播特性的物理量。利用dE/dt时变曲线可以较精确地确定先导开始位置、接地附近先导传播速度以及接地瞬时的先导电流，同时利用dE/dt极值点的特征可以揭示通道传播过程中倾斜、弯曲特征。     

闪电的20MHz辐射与放电过程

利用一台窄带高频接收机对20MHz的闪电辐射场进行了测量，并利用一慢天线电场变化仪配合观测以区分对地放电中的各放电过程，得到了地闪各闪击过程及云闪的辐射强度和辐射时间。我们认为云闪的K变化、地闪中的第一次闪击是20MHz的最强辐射源，以后的闪击次之，并逐步减弱。     

Comparative analysis of the initial stage in two artificially-triggered lightning flashes

The initial discharge stages of two flashes during the Shandong Artificially Triggering Lightning Experiment (SHATLE) are analyzed based on the synchronous data of the current and close electromagnetic field. For a lightning flash, named 0503, the wire was connected, not electrically, but via a 5 m length of nylon, with the lightning rod; while for another, named 0602, the wire was connected with the rod directly. Results show that the discharge processes of the initial stage (IS) in flash 0503 are quite different from that of the usual classical-triggered flash 0602 and altitude-triggered flashes. A large pulse with a current of about 720 A resulted from the breakdown of the 5 m air gap during flash 0503, and the corresponding electric field at 60 m from the lightning rod was 0.38 kV/m. The upward positive leaders (UPLs) propagated continuously from the tip of the rocket after this breakdown. The geometric mean (GM) of the UPL peak current was 23.0 A. Vaporization of the wire occurred during the initial continuous current (ICC) stage and the largest current pulse was about 400 A. Compared with triggered flash 0503, the discharge processes of IS in flash 0602 were simple, only two large pulses similar to each other occurred before dart leader/return stroke sequences. The peak current of the first pulse was 2.1 kA and its corresponding electric field and magnetic field at a distance of 60 m from the lightning rod were 0.98 kV/m and 7.03 μT, respectively. During the second pulse, the wire disintegrated. The current decreased to the background level at the moment of the wire disintegration. The current of the second pulse in triggered flash 0602 was 2.8 kA, and the corresponding electric field and magnetic field at 60 m from the lightning rod were 1.22 kV/m and 9.01 μT, respectively.     

雷暴下近地面电特性及其对人工引雷的影响

利用已建立的一维时变模式，对雷暴下近地面的电特性进行了计算。计算结果表明：由于地面的不规则性所产生的电晕电流密度可达２．０ｎＡ／ｍ＾２，由此而形成的空间电荷密度在１００ｍ密度以下可达１．１ｎＣ／ｍ＾３，传导电流可达３．５ｎＡ／ｍ＾２，并可延伸到１０００ｍ高度，形成０．１ｎＣ／ｍ＾３和１．０ｎＡ／ｍ＾２的电荷密度和电流密度。     

Orographically-forced cold fronts — Mean structure and motion

Shallow cold fronts with a north-west/south-east orientation sometimes experience blocking by the coastal mountain range of south-eastern Australia and greatly increase their propagation speed on the eastern (seaward) side of the range while they advance more slowly to the west of the range. The violent behaviour of some cold-frontal passages, or southerly busters, is found to be at least orographically initiated, but the phenomenon does not exhibit the characteristics of a coastally-trapped density current. The head of the front has the character of an evolving density current and its propagation is well predicted by density current theory over more than half of its lifetime. Nevertheless, it differs from steady laboratory-simulated examples in that a horizontal roll-vortex just behind the front is found to be accelerating relative to the rate of advection of cold air behind the front. This implies that its evolution will be governed by warm air entrainment, a fact which is confirmed by the observations. General agreement between extensive airborne observations over the ocean and measurements made at selected points along the coast indicates the usefulness of these basic studies for future improvement to forecasting in the near-coastal region.