The outlook for precipitation measurements from space*

Abstract

To provide useful precipitation measurements from space, two requirements must be met: adequate spatial and temporal sampling of the storm and sufficient accuracy in the estimate of precipitation intensity. Although presently no single instrument or method completely satisfies both requirements, the visible/IR, microwave radiometer and radar methods can be used in a readepiction, manner. Visible/IR instruments provide good temporal sampling and rain area depiction, but recourse must be made to microwave measurements for quantitative rainfall estimates. The inadequacy of microwave radiometric measurements over land suggests, in turn, the use of radar. Several recently developed attenuating‐wavelength radar methods are discussed in terms of their accuracy, dynamic range and system implementation. Traditionally, the requirements of high resolution and adequate dynamic range have led to fairly costly and complex radar systems. Some simplifications and cost reduction can be made, however, by using K‐band wavelengths, which have the advantages of greater sensitivity at low rain rates and higher resolution capabilities. Several recently proposed methods of this kind are reviewed in terms of accuracy and system implementation. Finally, an adaptive‐pointing multi‐sensor instrument is described that would exploit certain advantages of the IR, radiometric and radar methods.     

Spatiotemporal variations of precipitation regimes across Yangtze River Basin,China

Daily precipitation data during the period of 1960 to 2005 from 147 rain gauging stations over the Yangtze River Basin are analyzed to investigate precipitation variations based on precipitation indices and also consecutive rainfall regimes in both space and time. Results indicate decreasing annual/monthly mean precipitation. Distinct decreases in rainfall days are observed over most parts of the Yangtze River Basin, but precipitation intensity is increasing over most parts of the Yangtze River Basin, particularly the lower Yangtze River Basin. Besides, durations of precipitation regimes are shortening; however, the fractional contribution of short-lasting precipitation regimes to the total precipitation amount is increasing. In this sense, the precipitation processes in the Yangtze River Basin are dominated by precipitation regimes of shorter durations. These results indicate intensified hydrological cycle reflected by shortening precipitation regimes. This finding is different from that in Europe where the intensifying precipitation changes are reflected mainly by lengthening precipitation regimes, implying different regional responses of hydrological cycle to climate changes. The results of this study will be of considerable relevance in basin-scale water resources management, human mitigation of natural hazards, and in understanding regional hydrological responses to changing climate at regional scales.     

Precipitation: Measurement,remote sensing,climatology and modeling

This review paper deals with four aspects of precipitation: measurement, remote sensing, climatology and modeling. The measurement of precipitation is summarized in terms of the instruments that count and measure drop sizes (defined as disdrometers) and the instruments that measure an average quantity proportional to the integrated volume of an ensemble of raindrops (these instruments are normally called rain gauges). Remote sensing of precipitation is accomplished with ground based radar and from satellite retrievals and these two approaches are separately discussed. The climatology of precipitation has evolved through the years from the traditional rain gauge data analyses to the more sophisticated data bases that result from a coalescence of data and information on precipitation that is available from several sources into amalgamated products. Recently, rain observations from both ground and space have been assimilated into regional and global numerical weather prediction models aiming at improved moisture analysis and better forecasts of extreme weather events. The current status and the main outstanding issues related to precipitation forecasting are discussed, providing a basic structure for research coordination aimed at the improvement of modeling, observation and data assimilation applicable to global and regional scales.     

Precipitation: Measurement,remote sensing,climatology and modeling

This review paper deals with four aspects of precipitation: measurement, remote sensing, climatology and modeling. The measurement of precipitation is summarized in terms of the instruments that count and measure drop sizes (defined as disdrometers) and the instruments that measure an average quantity proportional to the integrated volume of an ensemble of raindrops (these instruments are normally called rain gauges). Remote sensing of precipitation is accomplished with ground based radar and from satellite retrievals and these two approaches are separately discussed. The climatology of precipitation has evolved through the years from the traditional rain gauge data analyses to the more sophisticated data bases that result from a coalescence of data and information on precipitation that is available from several sources into amalgamated products. Recently, rain observations from both ground and space have been assimilated into regional and global numerical weather prediction models aiming at improved moisture analysis and better forecasts of extreme weather events. The current status and the main outstanding issues related to precipitation forecasting are discussed, providing a basic structure for research coordination aimed at the improvement of modeling, observation and data assimilation applicable to global and regional scales.     

陇东塬区不同量级降水的气候变化特征

利用西峰站1951～2010年逐日降水观测资料,根据划分的雨量级别分析了近60a来陇东塬区西峰年降水量及分级降水雨量谱的气候变化特点,并利用累积距平法和Mann—Kendall方法对气候突变进行分析检测。结果表明,近60a西峰的年降水量有明显的下降趋势,其中小雨、中雨、大雨均为正贡献,暴雨为负贡献。而1986—2010年期间年降水有弱的上升,主要是大雨级的雨量增大、雨日增多和雨强增强所致;进一步分析得出,上述变化仍属于年际变化范畴,因此不能说突变已经发生,但有上升迹象。     

2010年6月中旬浙闽赣地区暴雨特征和冰云热力效应的数值模拟分析

以2010年6月19日发生在浙闽赣地区的一次强降水过程为例,利用中尺度WRF模式进行模拟,用模拟资料对该地区降水收支特征和冰云热力作用进行分析。依据局地水汽/热量变化项、水汽/热量辐合辐散项和云凝物辐合辐散项这3个因子可将降水分为8类,其中局地水汽变干和大气变暖、水汽辐合和热量辐散以及云凝物辐合时,降水强度(雨强)最强,而局地水汽变湿和大气变冷、水汽辐合和热量辐散以及云凝物辐合时,降水覆盖率最大。冰云热力效应包括辐射和潜热两部分。基准试验与敏感性试验对比分析表明冰云辐射减弱降水,而冰云潜热增强降水。热量收支对比分析发现冰云辐射造成辐射冷却的减弱在对流层中低层随高度增加,减弱大气不稳定和降水;而冰云潜热造成潜热增强在对流层中高层随高度减小,增强大气不稳定和降水。     

近60年中国日降水量分区及气候特征

根据中国国家级地面气象站均一化降水数据集,使用1956~2015年512个台站的日降水量资料,通过旋转经验正交函数（REOF）得到七个分区。比较了各分区平均日降水量的年内变化和多年倾向率差异:我国偏南分区的小雨日数减少,大雨、暴雨日数、日降水量的区域年均值增加;偏北分区的小雨、大雨、暴雨日数、降水量年均值为递减;长江中下游区（东北区）日降水量、小雨日数、暴雨日数的年均值的近60年倾向率分别是0.0071 mm a-1（-0.0010 mm a-1）、-0.0729 d a-1（-0.0615 d a-1）、0.0132 d a-1（-0.0007 d a-1）。100°E以西地区:小雨、中雨日数在增加,无雨日数显著减少,日降水量的年均值呈递增特点。通过自相关函数和小波功率谱估计,揭示了七个分区的日降水量年均值普遍存在2~4 a周期震荡。使用NCEP/NCAR月均再分析资料,以区域日降水量年均值为指数得到500 hPa、700 hPa、850 hPa回归风系数场、旱涝年整场水汽通量和水汽通量散度差异场相结合分析,结果表明:"东高西低,南高北低"环流型和区域降水有密切关系,水汽差异场是上述环流特点的反映。     

“21·7”河南特大暴雨气象和水文雨量观测对比

2021年“21·7”河南特大暴雨打破我国大陆小时气象观测纪录,该极端天气事件位列2021年中国十大天气气候事件第2位。已有研究使用气象地面站雨量观测资料对此次过程进行雨情分析和极值统计,但降水时空分布不均匀,单一来源资料存在不确定性。通过对比气象站和水文站雨量资料,分析两套业务观测系统记录“21·7”河南特大暴雨过程的异同,发现气象站和水文站雨量在时间和空间分布上具有很好的一致性,两者不同等级的累积降雨落区、逐日和逐时降雨演变趋势均一致性强,但累积雨量和雨强极值的空间分布和数值存在差异,两套资料在暴雨中心（过程雨量大于600 mm）的系统性偏差小于1%。气象站和水文站的融合资料呈现比单一资料更细致的降雨分布、更全面的演变特征。此外,基于融合资料发现累积雨量排名前3位的城市（郑州、鹤壁、新乡）均具有累积雨量大、小时雨强极强、强降雨集中、雨强突然增长的特征,鹤壁和新乡最强降雨时段分别比郑州晚26 h和28 h。     

参加CMIP5计划的四个中国模式模拟的东亚地区降水结构特征及未来变化

在全球变暖的背景下, 降水特征的改变体现为降水总量和降水结构的变化。由于缺乏较为长期、覆盖范围广的较高分辨率逐日降水资料, 过去对东亚降水的研究多关注其降水量的长期趋势和时空变率, 较少涉及降水结构的变化。本文利用当前最新且分辨率最高、覆盖范围最广的逐日亚洲陆地降水数据集(简称APHRODITE)以及四个中国参加第五次国际耦合模式比较计划(简称CMIP5)的模式(BCC-CSM1-1, BNU-ESM, FGOALS-g2和FGOALS-s2), 研究了东亚地区降水结构的观测特征及四个模式的模拟能力。基于此, 通过分析四个模式的未来预估试验, 探讨东亚地区降水结构在全球变暖背景下的变化。结果表明:整个东亚地区的累积降水量呈现出随着降水强度的增加先增加后减小的分布形态;降水频率则是随着强度的增加显著减小。小雨(中雨)呈现出南少北多(南多北少)的形态;强降水则较多分布在华南沿海以及日本南部地区。长期趋势上, 整个东亚地区大体上呈现小雨和30 mm/d以上的大雨增加, 而中等强度降水减少的变化趋势。四个模式对东亚降水结构的气候态模拟能力较好。BCC-CSM1-1和FGOALS-g2能够合理再现观测中各个强度降水的变化趋势, 而其他模式模拟不出中雨的减小趋势。四个模式的未来预估表明, 在全球变暖的背景下, 东亚地区30 mm/d以上的强降水会增加。且降水强度越大, 增加越明显。以30°N为界, 小雨(中雨)在变暖背景下呈现南部增加北部减少(南部减少北部增加)的变化趋势。     

Analysis of rainfall characteristics of the Madden–Julian oscillation using TRMM satellite data

Rainfall characteristics of the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) are analyzed primarily using tropical rainfall measuring mission (TRMM) precipitation radar (PR), TRMM microwave imager (TMI) and lighting imaging sensor (LIS) data. Latent heating structure is also examined using latent heating data estimated with the spectral latent heating (SLH) algorithm.The zonal structure, time evolution, and characteristic stages of the MJO precipitation system are described. Stratiform rain fraction increases with the cloud activity, and the amplitude of stratiform rain variation associated with the MJO is larger than that of convective rain by a factor of 1.7. Maximum peaks of both convective rain and stratiform rain precede the minimum peak of the outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) anomaly which is often used as a proxy for the MJO convection. Stratiform rain remains longer than convective rain until ∼4000 km behind the peak of the mature phase. The stratiform rain contribution results in the top-heavy heating profile of the MJO.Associated with the MJO, there are tri-pole convective rain top heights (RTH) at 10–11, ∼7 and ∼3 km, corresponding to the dominance of afternoon showers, organized systems, and shallow convections, respectively. The stratiform rain is basically organized with convective rain, having similar but slightly lower RTH and slightly lags the convective rain maximum. It is notable that relatively moderate (∼7 km) RTH is dominant in the mature phase of the MJO, while very tall rainfall with RTH over 10 km and lightning frequency increase in the suppressed phase. The rain-yield-per flash (RPF) varies about 20–100% of the mean value of ∼2–10 × 10⁹ kg fl⁻¹ over the tropical warm ocean and that of ∼2–5 × 10⁹ kg fl⁻¹ over the equatorial Islands, between the convectively suppressed phase and the active phase of MJO, in the manner that RPF is smaller in the suppressed phase and larger in the active phase.     

GPM/IMERG产品在鲁南地区的精度评估

为了评估GPM/IMERG产品在鲁南地区的精度,利用2016年1—12月鲁南地区35个国家气象站的降水观测数据,采用定量和分类评分指标的方法,从时间、空间和降雨强度等方面对GPM/IMERG产品在鲁南地区的适用性进行评估。结果表明:IMERG数据在鲁南地区具有较高的精度,IMERG与站点观测数据相关系数为0.8,均方根误差为5.47mm/d,相对偏差为2.27%;从时间上来看,IMERG与站点观测区域平均日降水和月降水总体变化趋势是一致的,夏季的估算精度高于其他季节;从空间上来看,年降水量偏多的台站,IMERG数据会低估,年降水量偏少的台站,IMERG数据会高估,IMERG对中纬度山地和丘陵的估测精度优于平原;IMERG产品的估计精度与降雨强度有关,当降水量级为微量降水(小于1mm/d)时,卫星估测能力较弱,当降水强度为小雨及以上量级时,卫星估测降水产品与实际观测概率密度差异较小;IMERG估算稳定性降水的能力较强,在降水较多月份,IMERG的探测准确率较高、空报率较低、临界成功指数较好。     

一次典型暴雨的TRMM卫星观测及特征分析

利用TRMM卫星探测结果来探讨2010年6月23日发生于湖南一次局地大暴雨的云物理特征.结果表明:(1)强降水系统由一个主降水云团和多个零散降水云团组成,降水系统中对流降水所占面积比层云降水面积小但对总降水量的贡献超过层云降水;(2)可降水冰的丰富区与强的对流上升区域相吻合,云水、云冰对降水产生的影响不大,可降水冰的强...     

分类型最优法在江苏沿江地区降水估测中的应用与讨论

为提高现有天气雷达产品生成模块中处理系统算法精度、并为其他短时临近预报系统或数值预报模式提供合适的Z-I关系为目的,选择江苏沿江地区作为试验区域,采用分类型最优法建立相应的Z-I关系,并比较分类型最优法与单一Z-I关系对过程雨量和分段雨量的估测能力.结果表明:分类型最优法比单一Z-I关系法明显提高过程雨量估测的精度,梅汛期降水估测精度提高近2.5倍,夏季台风降水估测由低估72％降低至低估45％.对不同雨量段进行估测比较后发现,分类型最优法对强降水雨量段改善较为明显,对雨强＞ 10 mm/h的梅汛期对流云降水和台风降水所有雨量段的雨量估测改善明显.最后在气候统计的基础上,通过改进雷达估测降水产品色标数值等级,以达到优化雷达估测降水产品图像的显示能力.     

MM5 simulations of interannual change and the diurnal cycle of southern African regional climate

Summary Two cumulus convection and two planetary boundary layer schemes are used to investigate the climate of southern Africa using the MM5 regional climate model. Both a wet (1988/89) and a dry (1991/92) summer (December–February, DJF) rainfall season are simulated and the results compared with three different observational sources: Climate Research Unit seasonal data (precipitation, 2 m surface temperature, number of rain days), satellite-derived diurnal precipitation and the Surface Radiation Budget diurnal short-wave fluxes and optical depth. Using the ETA model boundary layer in MM5 simulates too much incident short-wave radiation at the surface at 12 UTC, whereas the medium range forecast model boundary layer yields a diurnal cycle of short-wave radiation closer to the observed. The Betts-Miller convection scheme in MM5 simulates peak rainfall later in the day and less rain days than observed, whereas when using the Kain-Fritsch convection scheme a peak rainfall earlier in the day and more rain days than observed are simulated. The intensity of the hydrological cycle is therefore dependent on the choice of convection scheme, which in turn is further modified by the boundary layer scheme. Precipitation during the wet 1988/89 season is reasonably captured by most simulations, though using the Betts-Miller scheme more accurately simulates rainfall during the dry 1991/92 season. Mean DJF biases in the surface temperature and diurnal temperature range are consistent with biases in the number of rain days and the diurnal cycles of surface moisture and energy.     

A STUDY ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GMS-5 INFRARED DATA AND PRECIPITATION SOUNDED BY TRMM/PR*

To study the possibility of improving the precision of retrieving precipitation through GMS-5 infrared data,the relationship between the data of GMS-5 infrared channel l(IRl) and precipitation sounded by TRMM/PR was carefully studied through some cases gathered during the HUBEX 1998.First of all,the relationship between the brightness temperature(Tb) and PR-sounded near-surface rainfall rate(NSRR) was studied.Then,as PR can sound the inner structure of rainfall area.a unique advantage of this new instrument,the relationship between Tb and PR-sounded rainfall rate in each layer was also studied.Still,as PR can tell the rain type,those relationships were studied again according to the different types of precipitation(i.e.convective and stratiform).After comparing these outcomes with those from other references,it can be concluded that the relationship between Tb and PR-sounded rainfall rate is acceptable and it is possible to calibrate precipitation retrieved through Tb by PR data.     

淮河下游初夏小时内降水分级与雷达信息特征

利用淮河下游盐城市多普勒天气雷达和雷达扫描范围内建湖县降水量资料,对2008年6月的6次小时内三等级降水过程进行环流背景和局地雷达信息特征分析,其中对不同等级降水又给出夜雨及午后雨降水日变化分类。在环流背景基础上,通过综合分析对应各级各类降水的多普勒天气雷达降水回波的滤波强度分布特征,以及相应时空的雷达径向风场沿体扫倾斜面的分布结构,归纳出小时内降水量级的动力信息特征。在两类主导性天气尺度环流背景下,局地雷达要素空间分布特征为：同等量级降水,夜间的平均回波强度明显弱于白天;上游补充回波范围指示降水连续性质;上游长而强的回波带支持下一小时短时强降水;沿经建湖的局地雷达倾斜体扫半径剖面, 径向风的风向风速辐合中心的高度越低,辐合层次越宽厚,对应的降水级别越大;在同等降雨量级中,沿倾斜的体扫半径的局地风速强切变,通过上下动量传递和水汽混合,维持着更强的降水。     

A STUDY ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GMS-5 INFRARED DATA AND PRECIPITATION SOUNDED BY TRMM/PR

To study the possibility of improving the precision of retrieving precipitation through GMS-5infrared data,the relationship between the data of GMS-5 infrared channel 1(IR1)andprecipitation sounded by TRMM/PR was carefully studied through some cases gathered during theHUBEX 1998.First of all,the relationship between the brightness temperature(Tb)and PR-sounded near-surface rainfall rate(NSRR)was studied.Then,as PR can sound the innerstructure of rainfall area.a unique advantage of this new instrument,the relationship between Tband PR-sounded rainfall rate in each layer was also studied.Still,as PR can tell the rain type,those relationships were studied again according to the different types of precipitation(i.e.convective and stratiform).After comparing these outcomes with those from other references,itcan be concluded that the relationship between Tb and PR-sounded rainfall rate is acceptable and itis possible to calibrate precipitation retrieved through Tb by PR data.     

用TRMM资料研究江淮、华南降水的微波特性

热带测雨卫星TRMM (Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission) 于1997年11月发射成功, 其首次携带了空载雷达, 有关资料已在网上对公众发布。利用热带测雨卫星上的微波成像仪TMI (TRMM Microw ave Imager) 资料以及其和测雨雷达TRMM/PR (Precipitation Radar) 资料联合反演的地面瞬时降水产品, 采用散射指数 (Is) 法从理论上探讨了我国江淮、华南降水尤其是暴雨的微波特性, 其中Is表达式通过江淮、华南晴空TMI资料统计回归得到。以联合反演的地面瞬时降水产品为真值, 用面积相当法对14个降水个例求Is降水阈值, 研究了阈值和降水面积以及85.5 GHz垂直通道最低亮温的关系, 并寻求了Is和降水的相关特征。研究表明:Is降水阈值随降水面积的增大或85.5 GHz垂直通道最低亮温的降低有增高的趋势; Is与强对流性降水瞬时雨强对应很好, Is≥60 K是一个好的暴雨指标。最后进行了初步的雨强反演试验研究, 由于TMI资料分辨率的提高以及时空配合较好的真值, 反演的地面瞬时降水与真值相关效果大大提高。     

华北地区秋冬季气溶胶污染与不同类型降水的关系

气溶胶对降水的影响具有很大的不确定性,正确理解和认识气溶胶对不同类型降水的影响对提高天气预报的准确度和全球气候变化具有重要意义。利用GPM-DPR观测资料和MERRA-2再分析资料分析了气溶胶污染与华北地区2014—2020年秋、冬季对流云降水和层状云降水的关系。结果表明:与清洁状况相比,气溶胶污染状况下对流云降水的降水强度有所增强,雨顶高度更高。在污染状态下对流云降水具有粒径小但数浓度高的降水粒子,潜热加热率更高。气溶胶污染与层状云降水的降水强度、雨顶高度等宏观特征不存在明显相关。层状云降水相比对流云降水更容易受到大气水汽条件和垂直上升运动的影响。因此,在气象条件主导降水的情况下,气溶胶污染对华北地区层状云降水的影响很难通过GPM-DPR和MERRA-2数据观测到。      

利用雷达资料对自动雨量计实时质量控制的方法研究

自动雨量计资料是对降水的直接测量,在流域面雨量计算、气候研究、气象服务等方面具有重要意义。但是,由于风力、蒸发、灌溉、校准、漏斗堵塞、机械故障、信号传输等原因往往造成其存在不同类型的系统误差和随机误差, 自动雨量计数据在定量使用前需要进行质量控制。目前,天气雷达以其高时空分辨率的优势已经成为监测降水的重要手段,本文首先采用两步校准法改善雷达估测降水,然后对雷达—雨量计对之间的差异进行统计学的分析,确定自动雨量计质量控制的一些标准,从而对雨量计进行质量控制。最后用两个降水过程对自动雨量计质量控制的结果进行了检验,结果表明:两步校准法改善了雷达估测降水的系统性偏差,并减小了雨量计站点上的相对误差;可以利用雷达估测降水实现对自动雨量计的实时质量控制,就整个数据集而言,约0.1%的数据被怀疑为误判,误判的自动雨量计主要位于雨带的边缘。但该质量控制算法同时也存在一定的局限性:在雨带的边缘或没有天气雷达覆盖的区域,以及雷达资料存在数据质量问题的情况下,往往会造成对雨量计的误判。