Late Pleistocene–Holocene landscape evolution in Fossa Bradanica, Basilicata (southern Italy)

Studies in the middle Basento river basin supported by reliable chronological data (tephra layers and a number of absolute datings) have allowed the reconstruction of Late Pleistocene–Holocene geomorphological evolution of the middle to low Fossa Bradanica area (Basilicata, southern Italy). The original Upper Pleistocene hillslope has been dissected by deep gullies leaving relict slope pediments. Holocene filling of the Basento river valley and gullies occurred as a succession of downcut and fill episodes. A first phase of accumulation occurred in the Late Neolithic, which was followed by a downcutting between 4500 and 3700 cal. yr BP. A second deposition phase took place in the Greek–Roman period between 2800 and 1620 cal. yr BP, which was interrupted at around 2500 cal. yr BP. Another downcutting phase took place between 1620 and 1500 cal. yr BP, followed by a deposition phase between 1440 and 1000 cal. yr BP. After 1000 cal. yr BP a deep downcutting took place. Evidence collected with this study, coupled with climate data recorded in other Italian and European locations, suggests that filling and downcutting episodes in Fossa Bradanica were predominantly climate-driven. Anthropogenic impact only intensified or weakened these processes.     

A Holocene paleoenvironmental history of Lake Alexandria,South Australia

An investigation of Holocene sediments within Lake Alexandrina, a shallow coastal lake at the mouth of the Murray River, South Australia, is presented based on a multidisciplinary approach.¹⁴C and²¹⁰Pb radiometric dating methods are used to establish a geochronological framework for the last 7000 yr BP, and diatoms, sand-siltclay ratios, organic carbon, phosphorus and copper concentrations are used to infer paleoenvironmental changes.The diatom assemblages indicate a change from marine-brackish to oligosaline-freshwater conditions between 7000 and 6000 yr BP, with sea-level stabilisation and continuous barrier formation across the Murray mouth. Sand pulses after 2300 yr BP document sand spit formation in the lake and the commencement of extensive lacustrine sedimentation.In the past 100 years which include the advent of European settlement in the region, the short-term²¹⁰Pb-based mass accumulation rate of 0.063 g cm^–2 yr^–1 is greater than that of the longer-term mean¹⁴C-based rate (0.023 g cm^–2 yr^–1), and high concentrations of phosphorus and copper correspond to historical records of blue-green algal blooms.This is the fifth in a series of papers published in this issue on the paleolimnology of aric regions. These papers were presented at the Sixth International Paleolimnology Symposium held 19–21 April, 1993 at the Australian National University, Canberra, Australia. Dr A. R. Chivas served as guest editor for these papers.     

Late-Quaternary history of midge communities and climate from a tundra site near the lower Lena River, Northeast Siberia

Analysis of midge remains in late-Quaternary sediment, recovered from a lake situated north of treeline in northeast Siberia, indicates the occurrence of notable climatic fluctuations during the last 12 ka. The onset of late-glacial warming was disrupted by a marked cooling event – possibly correlative with the Younger Dryas – that occurred between 11,000 and 10,000 yr BP. Increases in the relative abundance of taxa typically found in tundra lakes, such as Hydrobaenus/Oliveridia and Parakiefferiella nigra, and the concurrent decrease in temperate taxa, such as Microtendipes and Corynocera ambigua, suggest climatic deterioration occurred during this interval. At approximately 10,000 yr BP there was a large increase in temperate taxa such as Microtendipes and C. ambigua, and a decline of essentially all cold-water taxa. This suggests that climate was warmer than present since the modern distribution of both Microtendipes and C. ambigua is limited to forested sites in this region. This warm interval lasted until approximately 6000 yr BP when there was a precipitous decline in temperate chironomid taxa and an increase in cold-water chironomid taxa, such as Paracladius, Hydrobaenus/Oliveridia, Abiskomyia, and Parakiefferiella nigra. This cooling continued through the late-Holocene and the modern tundra chironomid assemblage developed by approximately 1400 yr BP.     

8000-year history of palaeoproductivity in a large boreal lake

An 8000-year record of palaeoproductivity, based on the chemical and chironomid stratigraphies from Lake Päijänne, S. Finland, was assessed with respect to known morphometric, climatic and anthropogenic events. A gradual trend of dystrophication and an associated decrease in aquatic production was detected during the Holocene, with the following exceptions: (1) high diatom and chironomid production around 8000-6000 cal yr BP, (2) eutrophication around 2000 cal yr BP, and (3) an anthropogenic signal during the last few decades.The changes in chironomid assemblages, before the past few decades, have mainly been shifts in concentration, but not in species composition. Variation in chironomid production was mainly explained by the accumulations of biogenic silicon, carbon and organic matter. Nutrient availability seems to be important in controlling biogenic silicon, which we use to infer past diatom production. The high production ca. 8000-6000 cal yr BP and the fluctuation in chironomid influx after ca. 2000 cal yr BP, however, were probably caused by the proposed warm/dry and cold/wet conditions during these times, respectively. These results highlight the sensitivity of boreal shield lake ecosystems to climatic forcing. In contrast, the pronounced change in the morphometry of the basin around 7000 cal yr BP had little effect on the trophic state of the lake. The human-induced trophic change during the past few decades has affected the Lake Päijänne ecosystem to an extent never experienced before during the last 8000-years.     

Late Holocene lake-level and lake development signals in Lower Herring Lake, Michigan

Paleolimnological investigations of a marginal lake in the Lake Michigan basin revealed signals of long-term lake-level changes primarily controlled by climatic forces. Multiple analyses identified concurrent signals in sediment chemistry, grain size, and the microfossil record. Coarse-grained sediments, benthic diatoms, and nutrient response species increased as lake levels rose or fell. Finer sediments and higher percentages of taxa associated with stable thermocline conditions occurred during high-lake periods. Sedimentary evidence revealed corresponding strong high-lake signals c. 2500–2200, 1800–1500, 1170–730, and 500–280 BP. Low-lake periods occurred c. 1500–1170 and 700–500 B.P. An additional signal of lake-level decline was apparent beginning c. 280 BP but was interrupted by anthropogenic effects. Evidence of extreme low-lake levels (c. 1400–1300 BP), and signals for a medieval warming period (1030–910 BP) and the Maunder minimum (370–325 BP) indicate occurrence of short-lived dry climatic conditions.     

Impacts of Holocene climatic variations on alluvial fan activity below snowpatches in subarctic Québec

In the Lake Guillaume-Delisle area of subarctic Québec, storm-generated alluvial fans have been active sporadically throughout the Holocene. In this study, we propose that the persistence of late-lying snowpatches in fan catchments during Holocene cold episodes promoted alluvial fan activity by lowering the precipitation threshold required to trigger a torrential event. This hypothesis was tested by characterizing the depositional processes responsible for alluvial fan formation below snowpatches, and by reconstructing the Holocene alluvial fan activity. Stratigraphic and sedimentary analyses conducted on seven alluvial fans revealed that they were deposited by torrential activity leading to waterlaid, transient, or hyperconcentrated deposition. The chronology of the storm-generated alluvial fans — based on 22 radiocarbon dates — indicates that torrential activity was enhanced during the cooler Late Holocene (i.e., after ca. 3500 cal. yr BP). Snowier winters and cooler summers were beneficial to nival activity, allowing the persistence of larger snowpatches throughout the summer and fall seasons. Rainfall-induced thaw of such snowpatches during rainstorm events is inferred to have contributed to alluvial fan activity by increasing water availability. Three peaks of alluvial activity occurred during the Late Holocene (2950–2750, 1900–1400, and 800–300 cal. yr BP) and are indicative of increased storminess resulting in higher fan activity. Increased fan activity during cooler episodes was concurrent with increased runoff activity in the immediate pronival area. This stresses the importance of nivation below snowpatches and pinpoints the role of nivation in enhancing geomorphological activity during period of cooler and more humid climate in subarctic environments.     

The Holocene development of Kushu Lake on Rebun Island in Hokkaido, Japan

Diatom assemblages and sulfur content in sediments were analyzed to clarify changes in the sedimentary environment of Kushu Lake, a coastal lake on Rebun Island in Hokkaido, Japan. Salinity variations were assessed by means of a diatom-based index of paleosalinity and the sedimentary sulfur content. This paper discusses the Holocene development of the lake, in relation to Holocene relative sea-level change. For paleoenvironmental interpretation of the lake development, the rationale of the threshold method (Anundsen et al., 1994) was applied.At ca. 8000 yr BP, a coastal embayment (paleo-Kushu Bay) resulted from marine ingression. The threshold elevation at the mouth of the paleo-Kushu Bay kept pace with the rising sea-level, resulting in its enclosure at the culmination of Holocene marine transgression (ca. 6500–5000 yr BP). From predicted relative sea-level at ca. 6000 yr BP for Rebun Island (Nakada et al., 1991), the threshold may have been at least above –3 to –5 m altitude. A freshwater lake environment with strongly anoxic bottom conditions may have occurred from ca. 5500 to 5100 yr BP. After an important episode of marine ingression, the lake was isolated completely from the open sea at ca. 4900 yr BP. The diatom record suggests that the maximum lacustrine extent occurred at ca. 4900–3100 yr BP. Thereafter, water depth decreased at the lake margins.In Kushu Lake, the threshold elevation, due to a build-up of a coastal barrier, prevents us from determining the amplitude of sea-level changes, even though the age of isolation contacts corresponds to periods of regression and climatic deterioration. In spite of isostatic subsidence, the effective protection provided by the well-developed barrier did not allow registration of any relative sea-level fluctuations since its isolation.     

Quantification of Holocene lake-level changes in Finnish Lapland using a cladocera – lake depth transfer model

During recent years, numerous studies dealing with Holocene lake level fluctuations have been conducted in Finnish Lapland. However, no quantification of lake level variations exists to date. Here, we applied a recently developed modern cladocera – lake depth transfer model to subfossil cladocerans analysed from three small and shallow (< 6 m) kettle-hole lakes in northwestern Finnish Lapland to provide estimates of the amplitudes of long-term lake-level changes in the region. The quantitative inferences were compared to pollen, charcoal and geochemical records from one of the study sites. The lake levels were inferred to be high during the early Holocene; they faced marked reduction up to 4–6 m in the mid-Holocene (≈7000–4000 cal yr BP), and rose again during the latter part of the Holocene. There is some indication of lowered lake levels around 1500 cal yr BP, but interpretation of such small-scale changes is hazardous due to large prediction errors in the initial cladoceran model. The overall pattern of the Holocene lake level variation generally followed the regional changes in climate humidity as reconstructed in previous studies by means of other sedimentary proxy indicators, such as pollen and oxygen isotopic compositions. We postulate that changes in winter precipitation may have had a greater influence on lake-levels than variations in summer precipitation or evaporation.     

A 12,400 14c yr Offshore Diatom Record From East Central Lake Victoria, East Africa

The diatom record of V95-2P, a 7.6 m long sediment core collected from 67 m depth, is the first from the east central portion of Lake Victoria. A soil horizon developed at the coring site shortly before 12,400 ¹⁴C yr BP due to a lakewide desiccation event. The radiocarbon chronology of the older half of this core is problematic, but if our estimated chronology is correct, then aridity and evaporative concentration of the lake are indicated by the presence of Thalassiosira rudolfi from > 12,400 BP to about 10,000 BP. Abundant Aulacoseira and generally rising biogenic silica concentrations may reflect enhanced water column mixing and rising precipitation:evaporation ratios ca. 10,000-8400 BP. A lakewide reorganization of diatom assemblages occurred around 7200 BP, when Aulacoseira nyassensis largely replaced A. granulata and after which rainfall and wind-driven mixing became more seasonally restricted. Pronounced reductions in offshore diatom deposition, from about 8300-5800 BP and after 3500 BP, may have been related to declines in the duration and/or intensity of wind-driven mixing. Increased aridity, and possibly deforestation in the lake basin, is indicated after 1400 BP.     

Late Quaternary palaeolimnology of a tropical marl lake: Wallywash Great Pond,Jamaica

Wallywash Great Pond (17° 57 N, 77° 48 W, 7 m a.s.l.) is the largest perennial lake in Jamaica. It occupies a fault trough within the karstic White Limestone. The Great Pond is a hardwater lake with a pH of 8.2–8.6 and an alkalinity of 3.6–3.9 meq 1^–1. Its chemistry is strongly influenced by the spring discharge from the limestone. The lake water is subject to degassing, evaporation and bicarbonate assimilation by submerged plants and algae, resulting in marl precipitation. A 9.23 m core (WGP2), taken from a water depth of 2.8 m, was analysed for magnetic susceptibility, loss-on-ignition, carbonate content, mole % MgCO₃ in calcite, and stable isotopes in the fine carbonate fraction. The chronology is based on ten¹⁴C and four U/Th dates. Four main sediment types alternate in the core: marl; organic, calcareous mud; organic mud or peat; and earthy, brown, calcareous mud. The marls represent periods of wet/warm climate during sea-level highstands and the organic deposits, shallower, swampy conditions. In contrast, the brown, calcareous muds were laid down when the lake was dry or ephemeral. The last interglacial (120 000- 106 000 yr BP) is represented by three distinct marl units. After a dry interval, stable, wet/warm conditions set in from 106 000 to 93 000 yr BP. A dry/cool climate prevailed between 93 000 and at least 9500 yr BP. Three subsequent cycles of alternating wet and dry conditions culminated in flooding of the basin by the Black River during the late Holocene. These recent events cannot be accurately dated by¹⁴C due to significant and temporally-variable inputs of dead carbon from the springs.     

Vegetation and sedimentation in the Lake Edward Basin, Uganda–Congo during the late Pleistocene and early Holocene

New palynological and sedimentological data obtained from the basal 3 m of core E96-2P from Lake Edward, Uganda–Congo record conditions wetter than present in the Edward basin from 11 000 to 6700 yr BP, in phase with other climate and vegetation records of northern hemispheric East Africa. Dominant pollen taxa include Celtis spp., Alchornea spp., Olea spp., and Moraceae indicating a moist semi-deciduous tropical forest. More xeric indicators such as Amaranthaceae and Asteraceae together with Poaceae comprise less than 5% of the pollen sum throughout this interval as compared with between 44 and 50% during a lake lowstand at 2000 cal yr BP and at the core top (near modern). The differences between these two assemblages suggest a 25 to 60% increase in annual precipitation during the early- to mid-Holocene as compared to modern (1500–2000 vs. 1200 mm/yr today). Early Holocene sediments in E96-2P are composed of laminated diatom oozes with moderately high total sulfur concentrations (2.8–4.7%) and no authigenic calcite, also indicative of conditions wetter than present. Between 9000 and 6700 yr BP, palynological and sedimentary proxies indicate sub-millennial-scale events related to changes in riverine discharge and runoff in the Edward basin. We attribute the variability in runoff, and hence precipitation, to Holocene variability in Indian or Atlantic Ocean SSTs or to shifts in the relative contribution of Indian and Atlantic moisture sources to the western Rift of equatorial Africa.     

Episodic wood loading in a mountainous neotropical watershed

The Upper Rio Chagres drains 414 km² of steep, mountainous terrain in central Panama. A tropical air mass thunderstorm on 10 July 2007 produced a flood across the basin that peaked at 720 m³ s^− 1 at a headwaters gage draining 17.5 km² and 1710 m³ s^− 1 at a downstream gage draining 414 km². The storm also triggered numerous landslides in the upper basin, which facilitated the formation of large logjams along portions of the channel where transport capacity of wood was reduced by a change in channel geometry such as a bend or channel expansion. During field work in February 2008, we characterized three jams with surface areas of 400–2450 m²; two of these jams resulted in storage of substantial (1100–8200 m³) sediment wedges upstream. We returned to these sites in March 2009 to document changes in the logjams and sediment storage. Drawing on observations made in the basin since 2002, and site visits during 2008 and 2009, we suggest that jams such as these last two years or less. We propose that wood dynamics in the Upper Chagres alternate between brief periods of moderate wood load in the form of large logjams and much longer periods of essentially no wood load, a situation that contrasts with the more consistent wood loads in catchments of similar size in temperate environments and with limited studies of more consistent wood load in tropical catchments with no landslides.     

Chronology of Sediment Deposition in Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon

A combination of tephrochronology and ¹⁴C, ²¹⁰Pb, and ¹³⁷Cs measurements provides a robust chronology for sedimentation in Upper Klamath Lake during the last 45 000 years. Mixing of surficial sediments and possible mobility of the radio-isotopes limit the usefulness of the ¹³⁷Cs and ²¹⁰Pb data, but ²¹⁰Pb profiles provide reasonable average sediment accumulation rates for the last 100–150 years. Radiocarbon ages near the top of the core are somewhat erratic and are too old, probably as a result of detrital organic carbon, which may have become a more common component in recent times as surrounding marshes were drained. Below the tops of the cores, radiocarbon ages in the center of the basin appear to be about 400 years too old, while those on the margin appear to be accurate, based on comparisons with tephra layers of known age.Taken together, the data can be combined into reasonable age models for each site. Sediments have accumulated at site K1, near the center of the basin, about 2 times faster than at site CM2, on the margin of the lake. The rates are about 0.10 and 0.05 cm/yr, respectively. The chronological data also indicate that accumulation rates were slower during the early to middle Holocene than during the late Holocene, consistent with increasing wetness in the late Holocene.     

Orbital forcing signal in sediments of two Amazonianlakes

Paleolimnological data from two ancient lakes at 0° latitudein Amazonia indicate that past lake level changes reflect precessional (19,000to 22,000 years) variations in insolation over the last 170,000 years. Waterlevel in Lakes Pata and Verde, Brazil, is determined by the ratio ofprecipitation:leakage. Times of low lake level are indicated in sediments byoxidized clays, evidence of algal blooms and high K⁺ concentrations.Peak K⁺ values are attributed to biogenic concentration when thelake was reduced to a shallow, productive pool. Low lake phases correlate withmaximum insolation during the dry season (June–July–August). Thusthe last glacial maximum 18,000 to 22,000 yr BP was a wet time in northernAmazonia, and the driest period of the last 170,000 years was from 35,000 to27,000 yr BP. These results from near the equator do not imply thatprecipitation changed synchronously across Amazonia, because geographiclocations throughout the vast watershed were undoubtedly influenced by localmoisture sources.     

Environmental changes in the Zirahuén Basin, Michoacán, Mexico, during the last 1000 years

Lago de Zirahuén (19° 26 N, 101° 44 W) lies within a montane basin in highland Michoacán, Mexico at 2075 m a.s.l. The lake basin has high recreational value and is promoted as a tourist attraction. Four short (<1 m), sediment–water interface cores were used to investigate Late Holocene environmental change. The cores span approximately the last 1000 years, based on ²¹⁰Pb dating, AMS ¹⁴C dating and tephrochronology. Cesium-137, Americium-241 and tephra layers from Volcan Paricutín (AD 1943–1952) and Volcan Jorullo (AD 1759–1774) provide independent age markers. Cores were analysed for diatoms, magnetic susceptibility and heavy metals (iron, lead, manganese, copper and zinc). Drier climate around 1000 years BP is tentatively inferred from the diatom assemblage and is concordant with other regional records. Increased soil erosion between ca. AD 1100 and AD 1550 may be associated with Pre-Hispanic settlement in the basin, but there is no archaeological evidence to support this. A period of catchment stability occurred during the early Colonial Period, ca. AD 1550–1750. The dramatic decline in the indigenous population following the Spanish Conquest in 1521 may have promoted vegetation recovery on the basin slopes. After the mid-18th century, a significant change in diatom species composition is observed along with an increase in soil erosion, as inferred from the magnetic susceptibility profile. Concentrations of copper and lead also increased. These changes are associated with the establishment of a copper smelting industry in the basin and increased Colonial agricultural development. Recently, tourist developments and commercial agriculture have impacted on the basin. The diatom flora has changed dramatically in the last 20 years, apparently in response to the onset of cultural eutrophication. The palaeoenvironmental evidence suggests that the lake is responding rapidly to land use intensification in the basin, which may have implications for future developments.     

Quantitative Holocene climatic reconstruction from Arctic Russia

Vegetation changes reflected in fossil pollen spectra are a primary source of information about climate fluctuations in the past. A statistical-information (transfer function) method based on the correlation of recent pollen spectra with modern climate conditions has been used to reconstruct Holocene climatic changes from fossil pollen. Climatic variables used for the reconstructions are the mean annual, January, July temperatures and annual precipitation. Peat sections with pollen and ¹⁴C data from the Arctic Russia were used for the reconstructions. The reconstructed climate fluctuations are similar to the climate changes obtained from many sites in the former USSR. A clear signal for Younger Dryas cooling, 11,000-10,000 yr BP and early Preboreal warming is apparent. The early Preboreal (10,000-9000 yr BP) was the warmest time for sites from modern coastal and island areas. The warm interval occurred in the Boreal period, about 8500 yr BP. According to the reconstructions the warmest time for non-coastal areas was the last half of Atlantic period, 6000-4500 yr BP. Other warm intervals were reconstructed about 3500 and 1000 yr BP. Reconstructions show that warming periods are primarily defined as times of increased summer temperatures, and cooling periods as time of decreased winter temperatures. The precipitation followed the temperatures: during the warming periods precipitation increased and during the cooling periods it decreased. Precipitation maximum, about 100 mm higher than present, are reconstructed for the warmest interval, 6000-4500 yr BP at all sites.     

Holocene Lake Evolution in the Elmali Basin,Southwest Turkey

The spatial coverage of paleoecological research from southwestern Turkey is expanded by reporting on a ca. 12,690 ¹⁴C yr BP (14,935 cal yr BP) proxy record recovered from the Elmali basin. Four AMS radiocarbon age determinations, the litho-stratigraphic analysis of a lake bed core, and the analysis of subsurface sediment samples from 15 shallow auger holes across the basin document sedimentation patterns during the Holocene. Based on the widespread occurrence of Chara gyrogonite, and several species of ostracoda and gastropoda, the Elmali basin was dominated by lacustrine and palustrine environments but was continually influenced by alluvial fan sedimentation. Contrasting stratigraphy in the Kara Göl and Avlan Gölü sub-basins is a result of basin morphology, and possibly hydrologic control by karst features, and sub-basin isolation due to alluvial fan development. The cyclical deposition of marl/lime mud, gyttja, and peat in the Kara Göl core is indicative of periodic fluctuations in water level across a broad shallow basin, whereas the continuous clay record observed at Avlan Gölü implies deep-water sedimentation within a plugged former karst collapse feature. Calcareous clay deposited between 14,935 and 11,180 cal yr BP signals the growth and expansion of paleo Lake Elmali, which at its peak during the late Pleistocene, may have inundated over half of the of the 180 km² Elmali basin.     

Late Glacial and Holocene Palaeoenvironmental Changes in the Rostov-Yaroslavl’ Area, West Central Russia

Three lake sediment sequences (lakes Nero, Chashnitsy, Zaozer’e) from the Rostov-Jaroslavl’ region north of Moscow were studied to provide information on palaeoclimatic and palaeoenvironmental changes during the past 15,000 cal yr. The multi-proxy study (i.e., pollen, macrofossils, mineral magnetic measurements, total carbon, nitrogen and sulphur) is chronologically constrained by AMS ¹⁴C measurements. Lake Nero provided the longest sedimentary record back to ca. 15,000 cal yr BP, while sediment accumulation began around ca. 11,000 cal yr BP in the two other lakes, possibly due to melting of permafrost. Limnic plant macrofossil remains suggest increased lake productivity and higher mean summer temperatures after 14,500 cal yr BP. While the late glacial vegetation was dominated by Betula and Salix shrubs and various herbs, it appears that Betula sect. Albae became established as early as 14,000 cal yr BP. Major hydrological changes in the region led to distinctly lower lake levels, starting 13,000 cal yr BP in Lake Nero and ca. 9000 cal yr BP in lakes Chashnitsy and Zaozer’e, which are situated at higher elevations. These changes resulted in sedimentary hiatuses in all three lakes that lasted 3500–4500 cal yr. Mixed broad-leaved – coniferous forests were widespread in the area between 8200 and 6100 cal yr BP and developed into dense, species-rich forests between 6100 and 2500 cal yr BP, during what was likely the warmest interval of the studied sequences. Agricultural activity is documented since 500 cal yr BP, but probably began earlier, since Rostov was a major capital by 862 A.D. This apparent gap may be caused by additional sedimentary hiatuses around 2500 and 500 cal yr BP.     

Holocene lake-level changes and their reflection in the paleolimnological records of two lakes in northern Estonia

Sediment cores from two neighbouring lakes (Viitna Linajärv and Viitna Pikkjärv) in northern Estonia were studied to determine lake-level fluctuations during the Holocene and their impact on biogeochemical cycling. Organic matter and pollen records dated by radiocarbon and radiolead indicated a water level rise in both lakes during the early Holocene (c. 10 000–8000 BP). A regression followed around 7500 BP and several transgressions occurred during the latter half of the Holocene, c. 6500 and 3000 BP. Human impact during the last centuries has caused short-term lake-level fluctuations and accelerated sediment accumulation in the lakes. The differences in water depth led to variations in sediment formation. During 10 000–8000 BP (Preboreal and Boreal chronozones) mineral-rich sediments with coloured interlayers deposited in L. Linajärv. These sediments indicate intensive erosion from the catchment and oxygen-rich lake, which favoured precipitation of iron oxides and carbonates. Fluctuations in water depth, leaching of nutrients from catchment soils and climatic changes increased the trophy of L. Linajärv around 6000 BP. The subsequent accumulation of gyttja, the absence of CaCO₃ and the decrease in both the C/N ratio and phosphorus content in the sediments also indicate anoxic conditions in the hypolimnion. The similarity in the development of L. Linajärv and L. Pikkjärv and their proximity made it possible to discern the impact of water depths changes on biogeochemical cycling in lakes.     

A diatom-inferred water depth reconstruction for an Upper Peninsula, Michigan, lake

Transects of surface sediment samples were taken in 4 lakes from the Sylvania Wilderness Area, Upper Peninsula of Michigan. These surface samples were compared with diatom samples from a core taken in the Northwest basin of Crooked Lake, also from the Sylvania Wilderness Area. Weighted Averaging calibration was used to reconstruct lake depths in Crooked Lake using the diatom microfossils from the core and the surface samples to infer past lake depth. During the early Holocene the lake was dominated by planktonic species and diatom-inferred water depth was large – approx. 13 m. At about 6700 BP inferred water depth was 2 m and samples were dominated by Fragilaria construens var. venter – a species characteristic of shallow parts of the surface sample transects. From 6700 to 5000 BP reconstructed water level was at its shallowest. From 5000 to 3000 BP it increased. This rise in water level was marked by increasing abundances of Aulacoseira ambigua and occurred at the same time increasing percentages of hemlock pollen indicate increasing available moisture. Modern water depth was reached about 3000 BP. The water level changes at Crooked Lake are consistent with regional climate changes in the Upper Midwest during the Holocene. The lake was shallowest during the mid-Holocene warm period documented by other investigators. It deepened as the Midwestern climate became cooler and wetter during the late Holocene.