Stress,strain and earthquake activity

There are 13 papers in this special issue on stress field,crustal deformation and seismicity.The great Wenchuan earthquake is a grievous disaster,but Chinese scientists are trying to learn more from the event in order to understand better the physics of earthquakes for     

Finite strain rock plasticity: stress triaxiality, pressure, and temperature effects

An elasto-plasticity theory is used to model the deformation of geological materials under various confining pressures and moderate temperatures. The effects of material hardening (or softening due to volumetric strains) are included, and the corresponding elasto-plastic rate constitutive relations are developed. To study the influence of pressure and temperature on the constitutive parameters, we use some published data of laboratory experiments on certain rocks. It is shown that over a wide range of pressures and low to moderate temperatures, when the rate effect can be ignored, the model can be used to describe the behaviour of geological materials. Based on this theory, dilatancy (i.e., inelastic volumetric expansion) of an intact granite is studied under conventional triaxial stress states. The effect of pressure and temperature on the magnitude of dilation and on the stress (measured relative to the peak stress) at the onset of dilatancy is investigated. It is found that, consistent with experimental data, the theory predicts this stress to be about 50% of the peak stress, but its specific value depends on pressure and temperature. As an illustration, stress-strain curves for intact granite at relatively shallow crustal depths are then predicted for possible application to the study of crustal deformation and for the prediction of fault behaviour.     

基于GPS应变、地震应变率与震源应力场对帕米尔高原现今构造变形特征的分析

研究帕米尔高原的构造变形特征对于理解印度板块向北推挤过程中的应变分配方式以及应力转换模式具有重要的意义.本文利用区域GPS应变场、地震应变场与震源应力场分析帕米尔高原的构造形变特征.主要结论为:(1)该区域变形主要以NNW-SSE或近N-S向的挤压为主,在高原内部伴有明显的近ENE-WSW或E-W向拉张,应力方向在帕米尔高原与塔吉克盆地区域呈现逆时针旋转的趋势,而在塔里木盆地则显示几乎与帕米尔高原的一致的应力状态,这可能与两侧盆地块体的强度差异有关.(2)安德森断层参数A∅显示帕米尔高原北缘与西侧区域为逆断层应力状态,在高原内部为正断层应力状态,这与GPS应变的结果显示的应变主要集中在主帕米尔断裂与阿莱谷地附近而在高原内部应变较低是一致的,另外应力在喀喇昆仑断裂北段的方向基本平行于断层走向,以及断层北端较低的滑动速率,这说明了地壳挤压缩短可能是帕米尔高原主要的的构造变形特征,并不支持由于边界走滑断裂导致的应变分异或者块体挤出的模式.(3)综合考虑地震应变方向与SHmax从帕米尔北部NNW-SSE方向到天山北部的近N-S方向的转换,GPS应变方向在帕米尔高原两侧盆地都存在不同程度的旋转,应力场安德森参数A∅显示的应力状态以及SKS的结果显示的近ENE-WSW方向,我们认为印度板块向北推挤与天山造山带碰撞导致帕米尔高原不对称的径向逆冲是帕米尔高原现今构造变形的主要成因与构造模式.     

分量式钻孔应变仪监测的附加应变场面应变分析

根据钻孔加衬模型和应变理论,得出分量式钻孔应变仪观测值不等于实际的线应变,但相互垂直的应变元件观测值之和与面应变成正比例.利用四分量钻孔应变仪的“自检”功能,对观测数据进行校正.以漳州地震台分量式钻孔应变仪资料为例,计算校正系数.校正前后的残差分析结果表明,校正效果明显.     

Magnetic fabric, welding texture and strain fabric in the Nuraxi Tuff, Sardinia, Italy

Anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) has been used to interpret flow directions in ignimbrites, but no study has demonstrated that the AMS fabric corresponds to the flow fabric. In this paper, we show that the AMS and strain fabric coincide in a high-grade ignimbrite, the Nuraxi Tuff, a Miocene rhyolitic ignimbrite displaying a wide variability of rheomorphic features and a well-defined magnetic fabric. Natural remanent magnetization (NRM) data indicate that the magnetization of the tuff is homogeneous and was acquired at high temperatures by Ti-magnetite crystals. Comparison between the magnetic fabric and the deformation features along a representative section shows that AMS and anisotropy of isothermal remanent magnetization (AIRM) fabric are coaxial with and reproduce the shape of the strain ellipsoid. Magnetic tests and scanning electron microscopy observations indicate that the fabric is due to trails of micrometer-size, pseudo-single domain, magnetically interacting magnetite crystals. Microlites formed along discontinuities such as shard rims and vesicle walls mimicking the petrofabric of the tuff. The fabric was thus acquired after deposition, before late rheomorphic processes, and accurately mimics homogeneous deformation features of the shards during welding processes and mass flow.     

地壳应变场观测中体应变与面应变转换系数的计算

将钻孔体应变仪与分量式应变仪的观测资料在面应变平台上进行整合,对于解决目前两种应变仪观测数据的评估、分析、处理和地震预报问题有实际意义．根据潘立宙-陈沅俊和Evertson理论及弹性力学知识,分别建立了平面应力作用下体应变和面应变观测的力学模型,推导了观测钻孔、空孔和无孔岩石体应变与面应变转换系数的计算公式,发现它们都可以归结为同一公式描述,差异仅在于k（体应变仪钢筒内壁或无孔岩石面应变与空孔岩石面应变之比）的取值不同．用Evertson理论推导的公式与空孔岩石情形相近,当岩石弹性模量为4times;1010——8times;1010 Pa时,二者都可以看成是对潘-陈公式的一种简化、近似计算;无孔岩石的情况则相当于在岩石弹性模量为1times;1010 Pa时对该式的一种估计. 文中结合实际情况对转换系数的各种影响因素进行了详细分析．      

钻孔体应变与面应变观测参数k的计算

钻孔体应变与面应变观测模型是地壳岩石应变测量资料分析的理论基础,对揭示研究对象的物理本质有所帮助,因为都含有参数k(应变仪钢筒内壁面应变与空孔岩石面应变之比),故k 的解算对模型的正确表述十分关键。考虑到外加应力需在岩石、膨胀水泥和仪器钢筒等3 层介质中传递的实际情况,根据弹性力学中的厚壁圆筒方程,推导出轴对称应力作用下k的计算式,该式与平面应力作用下基于双衬套理论(潘立宙、欧阳祖熙和陈沅俊等建立)的解算结果完全一致,公式的可靠性由此得到互证。又对k 的影响因素进行了系统研究,给出有关变化规律曲线和定量指标。最后,与Evertson 用2 层介质模型(岩石、钢筒)推导的k 值(0. 9)进行了比较,指出二者之间的明显差异和0. 9 的狭窄适用范围。     

对当前四分量钻孔应变观测的审视——以应变不变量为标尺

本文采用摩尔圆模型推导出中国和美国3种不同类型的四分量不同布设的两套钻孔应变的5组观测组合公式,随机选取了25个台站多年的观测资料计算5组最大、最小主应变及主方向,并采用两两相关和回归分析的方法对其一致性进行了检核.计算结果显示:经过大致1—2年时间后,应变不变量变化稳定,主应变及主方向越来越接近;大多数台站5组最大、最小主应变数值之间的相关系数和回归系数接近于1,表明这些仪器记录的应变数据具有客观真实性.5组主方向数值相差较大,本文对此进行了分析,并给出了5组观测组合公式的误差估计,发现主应变计算值的最大均方根误差是有上限的,主方向没有上限.最后对影响钻孔应变5组不变量一致性的一些因素进行了初步探讨.研究结果表明钻孔应变观测技术有其特殊的困难,在经历了半个世纪实践后,取得了重要进展,但仍有一些技术问题亟待解决.     

均匀弹性分层介质模型中的同震位移、应变以及应力

地震发生时产生的同震位移、应变以及应力变化,特别是同震应力的变化,在地震触发等问题的研究中有着重要的意义.本文进一步发展了基于均匀弹性水平层状介质,利用广义反射透射系数矩阵和离散波数计算同震位移的方法,使之可以计算相应的应变、应力以及同震库仑应力变化.可适用于多种情况,接收点可以位于地表以及地表以下,震源类型可以是剪切位错源以及拉张位错源.通过与半无限介质的解析解相比较,结果一致,验证了方法的可靠性以及计算精度,可以用于计算地震之后库仑应力变化,为判断余震分布提供参考.在计算同震位移时,使用了梯形积分与Filon积分相结合的积分方式,即提高了同震位移计算的速度,又保证了计算精度,有利于反演问题研究.     

河北省卢龙Ms 3．9地震与体应变异常特征

通过提取2008年3月11日河北省卢龙Ms 3．9地震前锦州地震台体应变短临异常信息,探讨了震前震源区附近的应力状态及异常形态特征。     

Rotation and strain seismology

Asymmetric continuum theory points to the equal roles of the rotation motions and those related directly to shear or confining strains. The strain motions could be quite independent or mutually related with the eventual phase shifts, while the displacements have only a mathematical sense; a real displacement may appear along the fracture slip only. Formally, any deformation could be presented as related to the displacements; however, its origin in a fracture source should be considered either as belonging to an individual process or to complex correlated events; in these cases, the confining, shear and rotation strains can be related mathematically to the different displacement fields. Some of these related deformations could be emitted from a source with a phase shift, while the observed displacements (deduced from records) result as a sum of these independent displacements. An important influence on a source process and on the premonitory micro-events has the material defects, their distribution, and mobility. The defect arrays lead to a concentration of stresses and their local reorganization. Thus, in this paper, we consider the induced stresses and strains related to defect content and to its modification and redistribution. Moreover, an important role in understanding the complex correlated events in a source plays the release?Crebound mechanism. The release?Crebound mechanism in an earthquake source processes leads to a possible direct or phase-shifted correlations between the emitted motions; in this aspect, a propagation of the coupled strain and rotation waves is discussed. In particular, we consider the point fracture events as related either to a confining load or/and to the shear and rotation processes; we discuss the related effects and their meaning when discussing the fault plane mechanism and emitted waves. In some important seismic regions, we have the recording system which permits to record the strains and rotations. However, we should point that the wordwide seismological network is not adequate to record the complex strain deformations released in the fracture processes and remains quite insufficient to understand the global stress changes and related strain waves of a very low period. Consideration on a recording mechanism of the long displacement waves indicates the insufficiencies of the present global recording system and points that recording of the global strain and rotation waves is an important and urgent task.     

Segment boundaries, the 1894 ruptures and strain patterns along the Atalanti Fault, Central Greece

The Atalanti Fault is a large active normal fault segment inside the Gulf of Evia Rift system (Central Greece), that last ruptured during the April 1894 earthquake sequence. Using structural and geomorphological interpretations of digitally processed Landsat TM satellite imagery, two regions of i) low topography, ii) minimum hinterland development and iii) transverse bedrock ridge development, 34 kilometres apart were identified; these regions are suggested to be segment boundaries constraining the length of the fault. From throw profiles and displaced syn-rift strata, we estimate a minimum slip of 810m at the central region of the fault (Tragana), increasing to a value of 1200 meters within the Asprorema embayment area. These figures averaged over a time span of 3 million years (age of oldest offset syn-rift), yield mean slip rates of at least 0.27 to 0.4 mm/year.Field studies were also conducted along the length of the Atalanti Fault Segment to reexamine and map the 1894 ruptures. The surface break is only preserved locally where the footwall comprises a resistant bedrock lithology (limestone), whilst the rest of the rupture noted in historical records propagated along the contact with the volcanic pre-rift, as well as within the syn-rift, and has since been eradicated due to man-made changes in surface morphology. The surface breaks appear not to have crossed over the segment boundaries that we propose, but seem to have ruptured the full length of the Atalanti Fault Segment, that is, 34km. These observations suggest that the 1894 rupture is the longest mapped within Central Greece. However, it remains unclear whether the ruptures were produced solely by the 27/4/1894 earthquake, or by two events, one week apart. We discuss the implications for fault-behavioural models and seismic hazards for the Atalanti area.     

泰安地震台洞体应变与钻孔体应变参数解算结果对比分析

基于泰安台2013年洞体应变观测资料,首先利用维涅第科夫(Venedikov)调和分析方法计算洞体应变测项的潮汐因子和相位滞后,并以潮汐因子的稳定性对观测资料进行了质量评价。同时对观测仪器的2个测项进行解算,并提取相关应变参数进行对比。在此基础上,选取泰安台资料质量较稳定的体应变数据进行了应变参数时间序列计算,并对2套仪器观测数据进行了对比。通过分析,认定应力场存在异常,并对比分析了应力场异常与重力场异常的对应关系。     

Temporal and spatial correlations of the strain field in tectonic active region,southern Kyusyu,Japan

The southern Kyusyu district is one of the most characteristic subduction zones in Japan. In this region, large earthquakes occurred sequentially, although earthquake mechanisms are different and the distance between earthquakes is far. We investigate strain propagation caused by a strain fluctuation related to subducting plate velocity. For this purpose, we used the data obtained from extensometers installed in an observation network at Kyusyu district and applied the cross-correlation function. If the strain associated with the subduction propagates in the crust, it is expected that the correlation around arrival of propagating signal varies from steady state. The results suggest existence of strain propagation in the overlying crust. Its velocity is estimated to be about 90–140 km/year with a direction from the subduction zone to inland.     

Geoelectrical,strain and tilt investigations of hydrological processes at the broadband Geodynamical Observatory Moxa,Germany

The Geodynamic Observatory Moxa, located in Thuringia/Germany, is dedicated to studies of temporal deformations of the earth's crust and of variations of the gravity field. One of the essential issues with respect to these investigations is the reduction of the hydrological impact on the data of the gravimeters, strainmeters and tiltmeters. In order to optimise the reductions, we investigated the changes in the hydrological conditions in the woody mountain slope above the observatory with time-lapse electrical resistivity tomography (ERT), and analysed the strain and tilt measurements for prominent signatures of pore pressure induced subsurface deformations.Here we present the results for two profiles – parallel and perpendicular to the slope – measured with ERT during 33 campaigns between June 2007 and April 2010. Resistivity changes and variations of apparent soil moisture, inferred from ERT sections, were found to primarily occur in the first two metres of the subsurface. These variations can be related to subsurface flow in the upper two metres induced by precipitation events and snowmelts. Trees close to the profiles only show a minimum impact on the resistivity and soil moisture changes.Furthermore, systematic hydrologically induced deformations can be observed in hodographs of strain and tilt measurements for large precipitation events (> 80 mm) and snowmelts. In the strain data a short-term (< 3 days) dilatational signal is found with an amplitude of 20 nstrain to 60 nstrain and a long-term (> 7 days) compressional signal between 40 nstrain and 180 nstrain. The preferential N–S direction of long-term deformational signals (> 1 week) is also observed in the tilt data. The direction of tilt changes (25 nrad–120 nrad) is nearly parallel to the drainage direction of the nearby Silberleite creek indicating variations of pore pressure gradients during hydrological events.The results of these hydrological studies at the Geodynamic Observatory Moxa can be used for removing the time dependent hydrological signal in strain and tilt data and, thus, better correction algorithms for hydrological impacts can be developed to enhance the value of the data for geodynamic studies.     

钻孔体应变与面应变观测井孔耦合系数的计算

钻孔应变观测系统（岩石、 膨胀水泥和应变仪钢筒）存在显著的井孔耦合效应,只有确定这一耦合系数,才能得到地壳岩石的真实应变值,从而实现不同测点数据的可比性．本文根据双衬套理论及弹性力学理论,建立了三维空间应力作用下体应变与面应变观测力学模型,并进一步推导各自井孔耦合系数计算式,发现两组系数与井孔的受力状况密切相关,分别与不同力源引起的应变信号相对应．亦即应力比（钻孔轴向应力与平面应力之比）不同,耦合系数也不一样,体应变随应力比的增大而下降,面应变则上升. 本文结果还表明平面应力作用下的耦合系数与外加应力无关,只与观测系统本身有关,故数值保持恒定. 此外,文中对其影响因素也进行了分析,结果表明,体应变和面应变的井孔耦合系数均随岩石弹性模量和泊松系数的增大而增大,且前者的幅度较大,井孔耦合材料水泥对二者影响均很小．      

佘山台四分量钻孔应变仪记录的台风扰动特征分析

通过对佘山台四分量钻孔应变仪在台风“浣熊”(Neoguri)和“海葵” (Haikui)经过期间所记录的信号进行小波分解、连续频谱分析以及优势振动方向计算,监测到台风对近岸造成显著低频扰动,并分析了扰动信号在时间空间频率域的影响特征,在此基础上探讨了扰动的激发机制.分析结果显示:在台风发育过程中,覆盖周期为2—16分钟的3个频段能量呈现显著的上升—峰值—下降规律,且这种升降变化与台风中心到台站之间的距离具有良好的相关性,其中周期2—4分钟为扰动的优势频段,能量幅值则随周期的增大而不断减弱.四分量钻孔应变仪在两次台风逼近期间的优势振动方向均为160°左右.通过对比风速数据,结合海岸地形,认为风对陆地的作用并不是引起低频扰动的主要原因,更可能是台风以海浪为介质,通过不断与呈光滑凹形形态的杭州湾北部海岸线的反射作用,进而激发自由振荡频段的低频扰动信号.