Himalayan Tectonics:Preface

The Himalayan-Tibetan orogen system serves as the modern paradigm for understanding convergence-related processes in orogenic belts. The advancements made studying the region have been applied to other ancient orogenic belts leading not only to a better understanding of their development, but also of secular changes in collisional processes. As more advanced methodologies are introduced and utilized in geological research, the type, scale, and quality of data available enable quantification of geological processes not previously possible. These complex and robust datasets now form the core of many of the research projects undertaken across the Himalaya and continue to provide unprecedented insight into the myriad different aspects of the evolution of the collisional system.     

喜马拉雅东构造结——南迦巴瓦构造及组构运动学

喜马拉雅东端-南迦巴瓦构造结的构造格架总体呈现由叠置构造岩片构成的复式背形构造.自NW到SE由比鲁构造岩片、直白构造岩片、南派乡构造岩片和多雄拉变质穹隆组成,它们之间的界限分别是直白-丹娘-南伊沟韧性拆离断裂、直白-丹娘韧性逆冲断裂和多雄拉韧性逆冲断裂.由高压麻粒岩相组成的直白构造岩片被直白-丹娘-南伊沟韧性拆离断裂和直白-丹娘韧性逆冲断裂所夹持,为挤出构造岩片.根据印度斯-雅鲁藏布江大拐弯缝合带西侧和北侧的变形特征及石英组构运动学的EBSD测量结果,表明大拐弯缝合带存在各段的差异,并具有逐渐演化的特征.大拐弯缝合带的北端为拉月-迫隆乡韧性逆冲剪切带;西段为鲁朗-拉月左行走滑剪切带,西南段为嘎马-米林左行伸展转换剪切带,指示南迦巴瓦变质体相对拉萨地体的运动转为水平走滑运动.根据大拐弯缝合带东侧右行走滑和西侧左行走滑特征,推测在印度-亚洲碰撞之后,南迦巴瓦变质体受制于这两条走滑断裂,而相对喜马拉雅地体向北推移,并深深插入拉萨地体之下,形成东构造结.由于南迦巴瓦变质体的强烈上隆,其上部原存的特提斯喜马拉雅的古生代-中生代盖层沉积被俯冲和被剥蚀贻尽.南迦巴瓦变质体中直白组高压麻粒岩相中石榴石辉石岩形成的温压条件(T=800～900℃,P=2.6～2.8GPa)表明,岩石经历了相当于80km～100km深度的峰期榴辉岩变质作用的条件,印度板片深俯冲于拉萨地体之下又折返挤出到由派乡组和多雄拉组角闪岩相(混合岩化)组成的南迦巴瓦变质基底之中.     

中国西藏南部喜马拉雅相的乐平统

西藏南部二叠系色龙群,曲布日嘎组等“喜马拉雅相”地层产有冈瓦纳区系的以Siriferella rajah,Taeniothaerus densipustulatus,Neospirifer(Neospirifer)kubeiensis和Retimarginifera xizangensis为典型代表的腕足动物群。其组成和演进层序与属于冈瓦纳大陆北缘的巴基斯坦盐岭的Wargal组上部和Chhidru组,克什米尔的Zewan组,印度斯匹提Kuling页岩上部的Gngrei组,尼泊尔西北部的Senja组和澳大利亚西部Hardman组的很接近;时代曾被归入瓜达鲁普世或乐平世早期等,分歧较大。近年来在盐岭等地发现这一冈瓦纳区系动物群明显高于乐平世一部牙形类Clarkina dukouensis带,并与菊石Cyclolbus和有孔虫Claniella动物群共生。由此推定整个色龙群或曲布组和曲布日嘎组都应属于乐平统,它与上覆三叠系以牙形类化石Hindeodus parvus和菊石Otoceras出现为界,代表冈瓦纳大陆北缘乐平世沉积的一个三级地层层序。层序以海进初期沉积的低水位体系域的曲布组石英砂岩为标志,其顶界则为比二叠系－三叠系界线略低的一个快速海进面。     

The Tectonics of Tibet

THE TECTONICS OF TIBET     

Tectonics of the Troodos Massif (Cyprus): preliminary results

The core of the Troodos Massif consists of a major tectonitic harzburgite—dunite unit (Mt. Olympus Unit) overlain by three tectonic units which, in descending order, consist of dunites, wherlites and gabbros, respectively. Furthermore, the Mt. Olympus Unit is underlain by three other tectonic units with the same lithology as the upper ones. The thrusts show a north-to-south emplacement, probably of latest Cretaceous age.It is suggested that Troodos, Southern Turkey, Hatay and Oman ophiolites could belong to the same oceanic domain; they underwent different displacement toward the Arabian—African plate.     

Tectonics of the Dolomites (southern alps,northern Italy)

In post-Variscan times the Dolomites underwent a number of tectonic events, which may be summarized as follows: Permian and Triassic rifting phases broke the area into NS trending basins with different degrees of subsidence. A Middle Triassic transpressive event then deformed the region along a N70°E axis, generating flower structures within the basement. Volcano-tectonic domal uplift and subsequent caldera formation occurred at the same time as the Late Ladinian magmatism. Early Jurassic rifting also controlled the subsidence which increased eastward. This long period of deformation was followed by a pre-Neogene (Late Cretaceous-Palaeogene ?) EW (ENE-WSW) compression which generated a W-vergent belt, possibly equivalent to the folded foreland of the Dinaric chain. A 70 km EW section of the Dolomites indicates shortening of at least 10 km. During the Neogene the Dolomites, as far north as the Insubric Lineament, were the innermost part of a S-vergent thrust belt: the basement of the Dolomites was thrust southwards along the Valsugana Line onto the sedimentary cover of the Venetian Prealps for at least 10 km. This caused a regional uplift of 3–5 km. The Valsugana Line and its backthrusts on the northern side of the central Dolomites generated a 60 km wide pop-up in the form of a synclinorium within which the sedimentary cover adapted itself mainly by flexural-slip often forming triangle zones. The shortening linked to this folding is about 5 km with Neogene thrusts faulting and folding pre-existing thrust-planes. On the north-eastern side of the Dolomites, Neogene deformation is apparently more strictly controlled by the transpressive effects of the Insubric Lineament and shortening of the sedimentary cover may be greater than in the central Dolomites. Minor deformation linked to the Giudicarie belt is present in the western Dolomites. The present structure of the Dolomites is thus the result of a number of tectonic events of different significance and different strike. Only a 3-dimensional restoration can unravel the true structure of the Dolomites.     

中国大陆的组成、结构、演化和动力学

中国大陆是由众多微陆块和小陆块组合而成的复合大陆，微、小陆块的软碰撞和多旋回缝合以及由此而产生的多旋回复合造山带、多旋回叠合盆地和多彷回构造岩浆成矿作用是其非常重要的特征。中国大陆具有清晰的多旋回分阶段演化过程和复杂的多层次镶叠式与立交桥式结构。古生代以来，中国大构造发展受古亚洲洋、特提斯洋、太平洋三大全球性动力学体系之控制。其主要动力过程表现为冈瓦纳裂离、陆块北移、褶皱带南迁、亚洲增生。     

Tectonics of the Basement of the Kara-Bogaz Arch (Turan Plate)

Geotectonics - The Kara-Bogaz geoblock is interpreted by many researchers as a structure underlain by the Precambrian sialic crust, incorporated in the young (epi-Hercynian) Turan Plate. The paper...     

Tectonics of the Northern Bresse region (France) during the Alpine cycle

Combining fieldwork and surface data, we have reconstructed the Cenozoic structural and tectonic evolution of the Northern Bresse. Analysis of drainage network geometry allowed to detect three major fault zones trending NE–SW, E–W and NW–SE, and smooth folds with NNE trending axes, all corroborated with shallow well data in the graben and fieldwork on edges. Cenozoic paleostress succession was determined through fault slip and calcite twin inversions, taking into account data of relative chronology. A N–S major compression, attributed to the Pyrenean orogenesis, has activated strike-slip faults trending NNE along the western edge and NE–SW in the graben. After a transitional minor E–W trending extension, the Oligocene WNW extension has structured the graben by a collapse along NNE to NE–SW normal faults. A local NNW extension closes this phase. The Alpine collision has led to an ENE compression at Early Miocene. The following WNW trending major compression has generated shallow deformation in Bresse, but no deformation along the western edge. The calculation of potential reactivation of pre-existing faults enables to propose a structural sketch map for this event, with a NE–SW trending transfer fault zone, inactivity of the NNE edge faults, and possibly large wavelength folding, which could explain the deposit agency and repartition of Miocene to Quaternary deformation.     

中国大陆构造的基本模型

中国大陆是由许多微、小陆块组成的复合大陆；以陆块间的软碰撞，多旋回缝合和复合造山作用为特征；具多旋回分阶段演化、多层式镶叠和立桥式结构；其动力学过程是冈瓦纳裂解和亚洲的增生。     

青藏高原东南缘现今大震活动特征及其趋势：活动构造体系角度的初步分析结果

青藏滇缅印尼歹字型构造体系是地质力学中最为典型的反"S"状(或"Z"状)旋扭构造体系,其中各构造部位之间在运动学与动力学方面具有密切的成生联系,并且现今活动性非常显著,属于典型的活动构造体系。梳理分析该构造体系中M≥6.8历史大地震的活动状况发现,与其运动学方面的整体性与协调性相对应,其头部、中部与尾部之间的大地震活动具有明显的联动效应,即当头部与尾部发生大地震序列后不久(大致为几个月、几年或十几年尺度),中部(尤其是我国的川滇强震区)随即也会发生大地震。但在1997年以来的最近一次大地震活动序列中,构成该构造体系中段的川滇地区却出现了长达15年之久的"异常平静"状态,这无疑意味着该区未来发生大地震的危险性将显著增加。进一步结合西南地区川滇弧形旋扭活动构造体系研究的最新成果,依据活动断裂带上大地震危险性判定的离逝时间、地震空区和强震连锁反应等"三准则",初步认为该区当前存在至少9个比较明显的大地震危险区带,包括:鲜水河-小江断裂带上的安宁河段、巧家段和南端的澄江-建水段,理塘-大理-瑞丽弧形活动构造带上的畹町断裂带和南汀河断裂带、滇西北裂陷带中的鹤庆-松桂断陷盆地区和程海-宾川断裂带期纳-宾川段,澜沧-景洪断裂带的景洪段,以及近南北向的保山断陷盆地和元谋断陷盆地。这一研究结果将有助于进一步全面认识我国西南地区当前的大地震形势,进而科学部署开展地震地质与地震预报预测工作。     

中国油气地质构造的特殊性

<正> 在经历了长期、艰苦的摸索之后,中国石油地质工作者逐渐认识到了中国油气地质构造的一些特殊性,目前可归纳为如下8个方面。(1)小型盆地多,大型盆地少,这对中国特大型油气田形成产生一定的不利影响。(2)中国板块构造在地史中强烈的活动性,不利于古生界海相油气田的保存,但形成了众多的中、新生代陆相油田。(3)盆地类型和沉积建造的多样性,导致中国油气资源在时代分布上的显著差异。(4)中国大多数沉积盆地发育多种烃源岩,但以中、新生界陆相烃源岩为主。(5)在中国沉积盆地中,常规与非常规性储集层并存给油气田勘探和开发造成许多困难。     

The lesser Himalayan Duplex in Sikkim: Implications for variations in Himalayan shortening

Thrust duplexes account for large fractions of the total shortening in most fold-thrust belts (FTBs). They also provide an efficient mechanism for transferring slip upward from the basal decollement and for transporting roof thrust sheets over long distances. The Lesser Himalayan duplex (LHD) plays a prominent role in the overall evolution of the Himalayan FTB and has been described from Garhwal-Kumaon to Bhutan. In Sikkim the LHD shows unique structural geometry and has been responsible for transporting crystalline thrust sheets (MCT 1 and MCT 2) farther southward than other parts of the Himalaya. Such lateral variations in LHD geometry imply variations in the kinematic history of the Lesser Himalaya and variations in shortening and shortening history along the length of the Himalayan arc, and these are reflected in observable large scale structural patterns.     

Geology of the Higher Himalayan Crystallines in Khumbu Himal (Eastern Nepal)

In this paper we present the current geological knowledge and the results of new geological and structural investigations in the Cho Oyu-Sagarmatha-Makalu region (Eastern Nepal and Southern Tibet).The tectonic setting of the middle and upper part of the Higher Himalayan Crystallines (HHC) and Tibetan Sedimentary Sequence is characterized by the presence of pervasive compressive tectonics with south-verging folds and shear zones overprinted by extensional tectonics.In the middle and upper part of the HHC two systems of folds (F2a and F2b) have been recognized, affecting the S1 high-grade schistosity causing kilometer-scale upright antiforms and synforms. The limbs of these upright folds are affected by F3 collapse folds, top-to-SE extensional shear zones and extensional crenulation cleavages linked to extensional tectonics.The uppermost portion of the HHC and the lower part of the Tibetan Sedimentary Sequence is affected by two major extensional fault zones with a top-to NE direction of movement. The lower ductile extensional shear zone brings into contact the North Col Formation with the high grade gneisses and micaschists of the HHC. It is regarded as the main feature of the South Tibetan Detachment System. The upper low-angle fault zone is characterized by ductile/brittle deformation and thin levels of cataclasites and brings the slightly metamorphosed Ordovician limestones into contact with the North Col Formation. Extensional tectonics continued with the formation of E–W trending high angle normal faults.Three metamorphic stages of Himalayan age are recognized in the HHC of the Sagarmatha-Makalu region. The first stage (M1) is eclogitic as documented by granulitized eclogites collected at the top of the Main Central Thrust Zone in the Kharta region of Southern Tibet. The second event recorded in the Kharta eclogites (M2) was granulitic, with medium P (0.55–0.65 GPa) and high T (750–770°C), and was followed by recrystallization in the amphibolite facies of low pressure and high T (M3). The first event has also been recorded in the overlying Barun Gneiss, where M1 was followed by decompression under increasing T, the M2 event, producing the dominant mineral assemblage (garnet-sillimanite-biotite), and then by strong decompression under high T, with growth of andalusite, cordierite and green spinel. Also, changes in phase compatibilities suggest an increase in metamorphic temperature (T) coupled with a decrease in metamorphic pressure (P) in some of the thrust sheets of the MCT Zone.A telescoped metamorphic zonation ranging from the sillimanite to the staurolite and biotite zones is characteristic of the ductile extensional shear zone which is the lower part of the STDS in the Sagarmatha region. Evidence for decompression under increasing temperature, anatexis and leucogranite emplacement accompanying extension in the HHC was found throughout the whole ductile shear zone, particularly in metapelites both below and above the Makalu leucogranite and in micaschists of the staurolite zone.     

Tectonics,sea-level changes and palaeoenvironments in the early Pleistocene of Rome (Italy)

The historical site of the Monte Mario lower Pleistocene succession (Rome, Italy) is an important marker of the Pliocene/Pleistocene boundary. Recently, the Monte Mario site was excavated and restudied. A spectacular angular unconformity characterizes the contact between the Monte Vaticano and the Monte Mario formations, which marks the Pliocene/Pleistocene boundary. Biostratigraphical analyses carried out on ostracod, foraminifer, and calcareous nannofossil assemblages indicate an Early Pliocene age (topmost Zanclean, 3.81–3.70 Ma) for the underlying Monte Vaticano Formation, whereas the Monte Mario Formation has been dated as early Pleistocene (Santernian, 1.66–1.59 Ma). Palaeomagnetic analyses point to C2Ar and C1r2r polarity chrons for the Monte Vaticano and the Monte Mario formations, respectively. The Monte Mario Formation consists of two obliquity-forced depositional sequences (MM1 and MM2) characterized by transgressive systems tracts of littoral marine environments at depths, respectively, of 40–80 m and 15–20 m. The data obtained from foraminifer and ostracod assemblages allow us to reconstruct early Pleistocene relative sea-level changes near Rome. At the Plio/Pleistocene transition, a relative sea-level drop of at least 260 m occurred, as a result of both tectonic uplift of the central Tyrrhenian margin and glacio-eustatic changes linked to early Pleistocene glaciation (Marine Isotope Stage 58).     

Distribution patterns of Oriental Cicadoidea (Homoptera) East of Wallace's Line and Plate Tectonics

The Cicadoidea fauna of Wallacea, New Guinea and Melanesia is in great majority of Oriental origin, but shows high endemism at the generic and specific levels. In general the patterns of distribution of cicadas in this eastern archipelagic part of the Oriental region quite closely reflect the changing positions of land in past ages, perhaps more distinctly than in many other groups of insects because cicadas are less dispersive. Aspects of the immigration of an Oriental group of cicadas eastwards of Wallace's Line into the Papuan and Melanesian areas are analyzed in a taxonomic and biogeographic study of the subtribe Cosmopsaltriaria. The phylogenetic reconstruction of this subtribe reveals certain patterns of vicariance between sister-groups. The two genera Dilobopyga (13 species and subspecies) and Brachylobopyga (1) from Sulawesi and the Moluccas vicariate with a sister-group comprising all other genera of the subtribe from the Papuan and Melanesian subregions. In the latter group Diceropyga (27) and Aceropyga (13) form a monophyletic entity, which is essentially distributed over northern New Guinea and the island chain from the Bismarck Archipelago to the Tonga Is. The sister-group of these two genera is Cosmopsaltria (22), which focusses in central New Guinea, without speciation in the island chain east of New Guinea. In Cosmopsaltria, the mimica complex (16), which is basically distributed in the central mountain ranges of New Guinea, vicariates with its sister-group, the gracilis group (3) in North and SE New Guinea. Comparison of a combined taxon-area cladogram of the Cosmopsaltriaria with the palaeogeography of the area involved reveals that the distribution patterns found can be explained by dichotomic dispersal of ancestral species along the Tertiary island arcs of Sulawesi and the Inner and Outer Melanesian Arcs. Dilobopyga and Brachylobopyga developed in the Sulawesi arcs. Diceropyga, Aceropyga and the Cosmopsaltria gracilis group evolved primarily in the Outer Melanesian Arc, probably since the Miocene. The Cosmopsaltria mimica complex is an Inner Melanesian Arc group, which developed after ancestral invasion from the outer arc probably in the Late Miocene or Pliocene when the inner arc approached the outer arc. The term vicariant dispersal is introduced here for the dispersal of sister-groups along dichotomic routes resulting in vicariant patterns.