Shallow necking depth and differential denudation linked to post‐rift continental reactivation: The origin of the Cenozoic basins in southeastern Brazil

The southeastern Brazilian margin presents post‐breakup Cenozoic tectonism that created a series of grabens and small sedimentary basins, known as the Continental Rift of Southeastern Brazil. The formation of this rift occurred long after the South Atlantic ocean opening and has been attributed to different mechanisms like regional uplift induced by hotspot activity, pulses of Andean orogeny and reactivation of pre‐existing faults. However, the proposed models lack an analytical or numerical verification from a geodynamic point of view. Based on finite element modelling of the lithospheric stress field evolution we conclude that a shallow necking depth, consistent with the hyperextended southeastern Brazilian margin, combined with differential denudation of the continent, resulted in an extensional stress field in the upper crust that induced the observed Cenozoic tectonism.     

Coseismic reactivation of the Samambaia fault, Brazil

Northeastern Brazil is, within the present knowledge of historical and instrumental seismicity, one the most seismic active areas in intraplate South America. Seismic activity in the region has occurred mainly around the Potiguar basin. This seismicity includes earthquake swarms characterized by instrumentally-recorded events ≤ 5.2 m_b and paleoseismic events ≥ 7.0. Our study concentrates in the João Câmara (JC) epicentral area, where an earthquake swarm composed of more than 40,000 aftershocks occurred mainly from 1986 to 1990 along the Samambaia fault; 14 of which had m_b > 4.0 and two of which had 5.1 and 5.0 m_b. We describe and compare this aftershock sequence with the present-day stress field and the tectonic fabric in an attempt to understand fault geometry and local control of seismogenic faulting. Earthquake data indicate that seismicity decreased steadily from 1986 to 1998. We selected 2,746 epicenters, which provided a high-quality and precise dataset. It indicates that the fault trends 37° azimuth, dips 76°–80° to NW, and forms an alignment  27 km long that cuts across the NNE–SSW-trending ductile Precambrian fabric. The depth of these events ranged from  1 km to  9 km. The fault forms an echelon array of three main left-bend segments: one in the northern and two in the southern part of the fault. A low-seismicity zone, which marks a contractional bend, occurs between the northern and southern segments. Focal mechanisms indicate that the area is under an E–W-oriented compression, which led to strike–slip shear along the Samambaia fault with a small normal component. The fault is at 53° to the maximum compression and is severely misoriented for reactivation under the present-day stress field. The seismicity, however, spatially coincides with a brittle fabric composed of quartz veins and silicified-fault zones. We conclude that the Samambaia fault is a discontinuous and reactivated structure marked at the surface by a well-defined brittle fabric, which is associated with silica-rich fluids.     

Geochemistry of the Rio Espinharas hybrid complex, northeastern Brazil

The Rio Espinharas pluton, northeastern Brazil, belongs to the shoshonitic series and consists mainly of syenogranite, quartz–monzonite and porphyritic quartz–monzonite, but diorite, quartz–monzodiorite, quartz–syenite and microsyenogranite also occur containing microgranular enclaves, except for the diorite. Most variation diagrams of rocks, amphiboles, biotites and allanites show linear trends, but K, Zr, Sr and Ba of rocks display curved scattered trends. The rocks ranging from diorite to syenogranite define a pseudo-errorchron and have similar REE patterns. Syenogranite and microsyenogranite are derived from two distinct pulses of granite magma with initial ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratio of 0.7083±0.0003 and 0.7104±0.0007, respectively. Modelling of major and trace elements shows that the syenogranite evolved by fractional crystallization of plagioclase, microcline, edenite, biotite and titanite, whereas quartz–monzonite, porphyritic quartz–monzonite, quartz–monzodiorite and quartz–syenite resulted from simple mixing between an upper mantle-derived dioritic magma and the upper crust-derived syenogranite magma. Dioritic enclaves are globules of a mafic magma from the upper mantle.     

Cenozoic reactivation along the Late Triassic Ganzi-Litang suture,eastern Tibetan Plateau

The spatial-temporal development of Cenozoic reactivation along Mesozoic suture zones in the Tibetan Plateau are first-order parameters needed for assessing models of plateau growth. The Ganzi-Litang suture, in the eastern Tibetan Plateau, developed in the Late Triassic because of subduction and closure along the eastern branch of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean. Near the city of Litang, the Ganzi-Litang suture is defined by a mélange sequence with fault-bound, synorogenic nonmarine strata along the western and eastern flanks, suggesting post-Triassic structural reactivation. We present detrital zircon U–Pb geochronology and field data to determine the timing and style of reactivation along the Ganzi-Litang suture, as well as sedimentary provenance of nonmarine strata.A reverse fault placing mélange rock on top of nonmarine strata along the eastern flank of the Ganzi-Litang suture indicates a contractional deformational regime during reactivation. Conglomerate clast counts indicate a local sediment source of recycled Ganzi-Litang suture and Yidun terrane rock. Detrital zircons indicate a localized provenance consisting of recycled material from Triassic Yidun Arc plutons and Triassic Yidun Group turbidite rock. A weighted mean average of Cenozoic zircon grains (n ​= ​10) establishes a maximum depositional age of 41.5 ​± ​1.2 ​Ma for nonmarine strata in the Ganzi-Litang suture. We interpret the maximum depositional age of the nonmarine strata to represent the upper-limit for structural reactivation along the Ganzi-Litang suture while undeformed Neogene strata in the suture zone represent the lower-limit; thereby bracketing structural reactivation from ca. 42–25 ​Ma. Our results provide enhanced spatial-temporal resolution for Cenozoic deformation in the eastern Tibetan Plateau.     

Metasomatic origin of augen gneisses and related mylonitic rocks in the hida metamorphic complex,central Japan

Summary The augen gneisses exposed in the Katakai area, in the north-eastern part of the Hida metamorphic complex, central Japan, are highly metasomatized sheared rocks. They contain K-feldspar megacrysts of nearly maximum ordering, and occur in a narrow zone, 2–3 km wide and 20–25 km long, along the boundary between hornblende gneiss and early Mesozoic granites. The hornblende gneiss, the protolith of augen gneisses, is mylonitized toward the granite, accompanied by significant metasomatism under greenschist facies conditions. The enrichment of SiO₂ and K₂O, and the increase of modal quartz, K-feldspar and hydrous minerals, are well described in terms of the Ml-value [Mylonitization Index: the modal fraction of fine-grained matrix (< 0.2 mm) representing the amount of grain-size reduction in thin section]. The primary plagioclase was albitized and the essential mineral assemblages were changed from oligoclase + hornblende in the protolith to actinolite + chlorite + epidote, and then, into epidote + biotite, along with the increase in MI-value. The mineralogical changes and growth of low microcline were carried out by reaction with and precipitation from fluids which flowed from the granite into the country rocks under shearing.

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Metasomatische Entstehung von Augengneisen und Myloniten im Metamorphen Komplex von Hida, Zentral-Japan

Zusammenfassung Die im Katakai-Gebiet im Nordostteil des metamorphen Komplexes von Hida, ZentralJapan, auftretenden Augengneise sind intensiv metasomatisierte, zerscherte Gesteine. Sie enthalten Megacryste von nahezu maximalem Ordnungszustand, und kommen in einer engen, 2–3 km breiten und 20–25 km langen Zone längs der Grenze zwischen Hornblendegneisen und frühmesozoischen Graniten vor. Der Homblendegneis, als Ausgangsgestein der Augengneise, ist gegen den Granit zunehmend mylonitisiert. Dies wird von signifikanter Metasomatose unter Grünschieferbedingungen begleitet. Die Anreicherng von SiO₂ und K₂O und die Zunahme von modalem Quarz, K-Feldspat und OH-führenden Mineralen sind im Rahmen des MI-Wertes (Mylonitisations-Index) beschrieben. Dieser Index gibt den modalen Anteil feinkörniger Matrix (< 0.2 mm) an und stellt den Betrag der Korngrößen-Reduktion in den Schliffen dar. Der primäre Plagioklas ist albitisiert, und die wichtigsten Mineralassoziationen wurden von Oligoklas + Hornblende im Ursprungsgestein in Aktinolit + Chlorit + Epidot, und dann in Epidot + Biotit umgewandelt; dies ging mit einer Zunahme des MI-Wertes einher. Die mineralogischen Umwandlungen, und das Wachstum von Tief-Mikroklin fanden durch Reaktion mit, und Ausfällung von Fluiden statt, die während der ScherVorgänge von Granit in die Nebengesteine migrierten.

     

Rapid upward transport of mid-crustal mylonitic gneisses in the footwall of a Miocene detachment fault,Whipple Mountains,southeastern California

Mylonitic gneisses of upper greenschist to middle amphibolite facies grade are exposed below the Whipple detachment fault in the Whipple Mountains metamorphic core complex. Fabric and microstructural analyses of the thick (>3.5 km) mylonitic sequence indicate that it represents an intracrustal zone of non-coaxial laminar flow with a predominant sense of northeastward shear. The top of this shear zone is the Whipple mylonitic front, the abruptly gradational (locally within several meters) upper limit of pervasive ductile strain between a distinctive sequence of non-mylonitized crystalline rocks and their lower, mylonitized equivalents. Mylonitization of Oligo-Miocene age (26±5 Ma) is estimated to have occurred at depths of 16±4 km (4.4±1.1 kb) and at temperatures between 460–535 °C. Fission track and⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar age determinations from the mylonitic rocks collectively document their rapid cooling from above 450 °C to below 200 °C between 20 and 18 Ma ago. Rapid cooling is attributed to post-20 Ma uplift of mylonitic gneisses in the footwall of an evolving low-angle detachment fault system of extensional origin. The NE-rooting Whipple fault system and the mylonites are kinematically coordinated (same sense and direction of shear), but the faults of the system appear to have cut across the mylonites several million years after their formation.Lower-plate mylonites reached the earth's surface, where they were eroded, prior to 16 Ma ago. Minimum uplift rates for the mylonites and detachment fault system slip rates for the period 20–16 Ma ago are 3 and 7.2 mm/yr, respectively, assuming that the mylonites were captured at a minimum depth of 12 km by a fault system that dipped 25° through the upper crust. From available cooling data, higher rates for 20–18 Ma ago are likely. Cumulative displacement of rock units across major faults of the Whipple system appears to exceed 40–45 km.

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Zusammenfassung Im metamorphen Komplex der Whipple Mountains sind unterhalb der Whipple-Abscherung mylonitische Gneise der oberen Grünschieferfazies und mittleren Amphibolitfazies aufgeschlossen. Gefügeuntersuchungen innerhalb der mächtigen (>3,5 km) Mylonitsequenz zeigen, daß hier eine intrakrustale Zone nichtkoaxialen laminaren Fließens mit vorherrschend nordost gerichtetem Schersinn repräsentiert ist. Den obersten Teil dieser Scherzone bildet die Whipple Mylonitfront. Sie überspannt kontinuierlich innerhalb weniger Meter die Obergrenze durchdringender duktiler Deformation bis zu eindeutig nichtmylonitisierten Abfolgen kristalliner Gesteine und ihren tieferen mylonitisierten Äquivalenten. Es wird angenommen, daß die Mylonitisierung während des Oligo-Miozäns (26 ±1–5 Ma) in einer Tiefe von 16 ±4 km (4,4 ±1,1 kb) und bei Temperaturen zwischen 460–535 °C stattgefunden hat. Spaltspurenuntersuchungen und⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar-Datierungen aus den mylonitischen Gesteinen belegen zusammen ein rasches Abkühlen von über 450°C auf unter 200 °C im Zeitraum vor 20 bis 18 Ma. Die rasche Abkühlung wird dem vor 20 Ma beginnenden Aufstieg der mylonitischen Gneise am Fuß eines sich entwickelnden flachwinkligen, dehnungsbedingten Abscherungssystems zugeschrieben. Das nordost verwurzelte Whipple-Störungssystem und die Mylonite sind kinematisch gleichgerichtet, sie haben dieselbe Richtung und denselben Schersinn, dennoch haben die Störungen die Mylonite einige Millionen Jahre nach ihrer Bildung überschnitten. Tiefere Plattenmylonite erreichten so die Erdoberfläche und wurden vor 16 Ma erodiert. Die Minimalraten für den Aufstieg der Mylonite und die Bewegungen entlang der Abscherungssysteme für den Zeitraum vor 20 bis 16 Ma liegen jeweils zwischen 3 und 7,2 mm/yr. Dies unter der Annahme, daß die Mylonite in einer Tiefe von mindestens 12 km von einem mit 25° einfallenden Störungssystem geschnitten wurden. Aus den verfügbaren Daten müssen für den Zeitraum vor 20–18 Ma höhere Bewegungsraten angenommen werden. Der kumulative Versatz der Gesteinseinheiten entlang der Hauptstörungen des Whipplesystems scheint damit 40–45 km zu überschreiten.

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Résumé Une série épaisse (>3,5 km) de gneiss mylonitiques allant du facies supérieur des schistes verts au facies moyen des amphibolites affleure sous la faille de décollement de Whipple dans le complexe métamorphique des Whipple Mountains. L'analyse des fabriques et des microstructures de cette série mylonitique montre qu'elle représente une zone intracrustale de flux laminaire non coaxial, avec un glissement prédominant vers le nord-est. Le sommet de cette shear-zone est le front mylonitique de Whipple, qui marque l'apparition brusque (localement en quelques mètres) de la déformation ductile pénétrative, entre une série supérieure cristalline non mylonitique et ses équivalents mylonitiques inférieurs. La mylonitisation, d'âge oligocène-miocène (26±5 Ma) a dû s'effectuer à une profondeur de 16±4 km (4,4±1,1 Kb) et à des températures comprises entre 460° et 535 °C Les traces de fission et des datations⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar montrent que les mylonites ont subi un refroidissement rapide de plus de 450 °C à moins de 200 °C entre 20 et 18 Ma. Ce refroidissement rapide est attribué à la montée, à partir de 20 Ma, des gneiss mylonitiques lors du développement du système de failles de décollement extensionnelles, dont ils formaient le mur. L'ensemble des failles, à pied NE, et les mylonites sont cinématiquement coordonnés; le glissement s'y est effectué dans la même direction et le même sens; cependant, les failles ont coupé les mylonites plusieurs Ma après la formation de celles-ci. Les mylonites de la plaque inférieure ont atteint la surface du sol et y ont été soumise à l'érosion avant 16 Ma. Si on admet une surface de décollement inclinée à 25° coupant les mylonites à une profondeur d'au moins 12 km, les vitesses minimales de la montée des mylonites et du mouvement de long du décollement entre 20 et 16 Ma, ont dû être respectivement de 3 mm/an et 7,2 mm/an. D'après les données fournies par le refroidissement, les vitesses devaient être plus élevées pendant la période de 18 à 20 Ma. Le déplacement des masses rocheuses de long des failles majeures du système de Whipple semble exéder 40 à 45 km.

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Whipple Mountains Whipple. (3,5 ) , - -. Whipple. , . , (26 + / -1–5 ) 16 + / - 4 (4,4 + /-1,1 ) 460–535 °. (⁴⁰ r/³⁹r) 20 18 450 ° 200 °. , 20 , . Whippie, - , , , . . . 16 . 20 16 3 7,2 / . , , no- , 12 , 25. , 20 18 . Whipple, , . . 40–45 .

     

Shear zone origin of quartzite mylonite and mylonitic pegmatite in the Coyote Mountains metamorphic core complex,Arizona

Mylonites derived largely from granite, pegmatite and sedimentary quartzite occupy a 500 m thick, gently N-dipping zone along the northern flank of the Coyote Mountains, west of Tucson, in southeastern Arizona. The quartzite mylonites are exceptionally well developed and occur as discrete layers and lenses, 2–5 m thick, within yet thicker, boudinaged, sill-like lenses of mylonitic pegmatite. Mylonitization took place in the Tertiary within a normal-slip ductile shear zone. The shear zones formed in response to regional extension of continental crust. Extension is along a north-south line, and N-directed sense of shear is revealed by mica fish, oblique foliations in dynamically recrystallized quartz aggregates, and asymmetric quartz c-axis fabrics. The microstructures and c-axis fabrics, taken together, disclose that ductile and brittle deformation was achieved by intense, penetrative, non-coaxial laminar flow dominated by progressive simple shear.     

A new pterodactyloid pterosaur from the Santana Formation (Cretaceous) of Brazil

A partial skull comprising fused maxilla/premaxilla and palate of a ctenochasmatoid pterosaur from the Santana Formation of the Araripe Basin in NE Brazil is named as the new genus and species Unwindia trigonus gen. et sp. nov. on account of its long slender rostrum, isodonty with raised dental alveoli and dentition of seven tooth pairs restricted to the portion of the rostrum anterior to the nasoantorbital fenestra. Unwindia is assigned to the Ctenochasmatoidea, and is probably basal within the clade.     

Geometry and origin of folding in the Neogene sediments of the Gediz Graben,western Anatolia,Turkey

A close relationship between formation of approximately upright folds with axes normal to the extension direction and ramp/flat extensional geometries is established for well exposed Neogene syn-extensional rocks on the presently low-angle Gediz detachment fault, along the southern margin of the Gediz Graben region of western Anatolia, Turkey. Three unconformity-bounded sedimentary sequences and several metamorphic extensional allochthons were mapped in the upper-plate of the Gediz detachment. The oldest sedimentary sequence consists of deformed and folded strata of sandstones and conglomerates that are regarded as being deposited in a supra-detachment basin during the Miocene–Early Pliocene. This unit rests unconformably on the extensional allochthonous, but directly in fault contact with the lower-plate mylonitic rocks. The younger slightly tilted Late Pliocene–Pleistocene sedimentary sequences are post-detachment units that are controlled by EW-trending high-angle normal faults. The youngest alluvium comprises the undeformed present-day basin fill of the Gediz Graben. The supra-detachment sedimentary rocks contain a number of kilometric-scale longitudinal folds that are nearly parallel to the east-west-trending fault system of the Gediz Graben. The folds have a steeply inclined bisecting surface, an interlimb angle of 130–150°, and a plunge of <10°. These folds may be interpreted to form as a result of bending in the underlying Gediz detachment fault. The bending may have an alternation of ramp and flat geometries on which a hanging-wall syncline and rollover anticline formed, respectively. This study again shows the importance of local geology in understanding of some spectacular structures of the extensional basins.     

Geometry and origin of folding in the Neogene sediments of the Gediz Graben,western Anatolia,Turkey

Abstract

A close relationship between formation of approximately upright folds with axes normal to the extension direction and ramp/flat extensional geometries is established for well exposed Neogene syn-extensional rocks on the presently low-angle Gediz detachment fault, along the southern margin of the Gediz Graben region of western Anatolia, Turkey. Three unconformity-bounded sedimentary sequences and several metamorphic extensional allochthons were mapped in the upper-plate of the Gediz detachment. The oldest sedimentary sequence consists of deformed and folded strata of sandstones and conglomerates that are regarded as being deposited in a supra-detachment basin during the Miocene-Early Pliocene. This unit rests unconformably on the extensional allochthonous, but directly in fault contact with the lower-plate mylonitic rocks. The younger slightly tilted Late Pliocene-Pleistocene sedimentary sequences are post-detachment units that are controlled by EW-trending high-angle normal faults. The youngest alluvium comprises the undeformed present-day basin fill of the Gediz Graben. The supra-detachment sedimentary rocks contain a number of kilometric-scale longitudinal folds that are nearly parallel to the east-west-trending fault system of the Gediz Graben. The folds have a steeply inclined bisecting surface, an interlimb angle of 130–150°, and a plunge of <10°. These folds may be interpreted to form as a result of bending in the underlying Gediz detachment fault. The bending may have an alternation of ramp and flat geometries on which a hanging-wall syncline and rollover anticline formed, respectively. This study again shows the importance of local geology in understanding of some spectacular structures of the extensional basins. © 2002 Éditions scientifiques et médicales Elsevier SAS. All rights reserved.     

Syngenetic and diagenetic features of evaporite-lutite successions of the Ipubi Formation,Araripe Basin,Santana do Cariri,NE Brazil

The Ipubi Formation in the Araripe Basin (Northeast Brazil) has evaporite-lutite successions rich in gypsum, a mineral of great regional economic relevance, a highlighted stratigraphic mark, and also a natural boundary for underlying successions potentially analogous to “Pre-Salt” hydrocarbon reservoirs of the Brazilian coastal basins. In this study, syngenetic and diagenetic aspects of the Ipubi Formation at Santana do Cariri (Ceará State) were investigated by means of facies analysis, petrography, and mineralogical/chemical analyses of evaporites and shales.The results show that the contact relationship between evaporites and marly shales, without signs of subaerial exposure and laterally adjacent, was associated with shallow, calm and somewhat anoxic waterbodies, locally salt-supersaturated (brines) but under seasonal variations of water levels. This scenario could have shared place with hydrothermal phenomena in a playa lake depositional system. Regarding diagenesis, although there is evidence supporting pseudomorphic replacement of gypsum by anhydrite, the burial of the Ipubi Formation would have been limited due to the frequent occurrence of gypsum without any trace of chemical replacement.     

塔里木盆地东南缘新生代构造变形特征研究

塔里木盆地东南缘新生代变形特征研究对探讨阿尔金构造带新生代的活动特征及阿尔金构造带与西昆仑构造带的相互作用具有重要意义.本文在野外地质调查的基础上,结合地球物理和沉积学资料,探讨了塔里木盆地东南缘的新生代变形及演化特征.塔里木盆地东南缘新生代构造变形受西昆仑构造带、阿尔金构造带和车尔臣断裂带的控制,且变形由西向东减弱.西南部的构造样式主要表现为受西昆仑向北冲断作用控制的冲断构造;东南部为受阿尔金断层走滑作用控制的走滑-冲断构造;而北部则为受车尔臣断层走滑作用控制的基底卷入走滑-冲断构造.中新世,盆地东南缘受西昆仑构造带大规模的冲断活动影响,导致民丰山前盆地挠曲沉降和冲断层发育,而车尔臣断裂仅有微弱活动;上新世开始,构造变形扩展到整个研究区,不仅西昆仑构造带和车尔臣断裂带表现出强烈变形,而且阿尔金断层走滑作用强烈,导致北侧次级断层的强烈走滑冲断作用和若羌山前挤压挠曲盆地的形成.新生代时期,西昆仑构造带北向冲断作用要早于阿尔金构造带的走滑变形,阿尔金构造带的走滑作用对西昆仑构造带北向冲断构造有强烈的改造.     

Petrogenesis and mantle source characteristics of Cenozoic alkaline diabase,Jiangxi Province,southeastern China

Major element, trace element, and Sr–Nd–Pb isotopic compositions of Cenozoic diabase in southeastern China provide insights into the nature of their mantle sources and processes. The diabases are alkaline in lithochemistry (Na₂O + K₂O = 4.37–5.19 wt.%) and have overall oceanic island basalt-like trace element patterns, without negative Nb–Ta anomalies. In addition, they are characterized by lower La/Nb (<1.5) and La/Ta (<22), and higher Ce/Pb (>15) and Nb/U (>30) ratios, indicating an origin in the asthenospheric mantle. The relatively lower ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd (0.512632–0.512648) and ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb (18.20–18.22), but intermediate ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr (0.7061–0.7063) ratios of the diabases are similar to enriched mantle type 1, suggesting crustal contamination or mixing with metasomatized lithsopheric mantle. However, the low Th and U contents and lack of correlations of Nd isotope compositions and MgO preclude significant crustal contamination. Alternatively, the moderate TiO₂ contents (2.01–2.09 wt.%) and high Cr concentrations (>240 ppm) suggest interaction between asthenosphere-derived melts and metasomatized lithospheric mantle. Petrological modelling suggests that the diabases were generated from a low degree (~3–5%) of partial melting of lherzolite with ~2–3% garnet. Jiangxi diabase was generated in a within-plate extensional regime, probably related to the far effect of the Himalaya–Tibetan orogen.     

Mesoarchean sanukitoid rocks of the Rio Maria Granite-Greenstone Terrane,Amazonian craton,Brazil

The Archean sanukitoid Rio Maria Granodiorite yielded zircon ages of ～2.87 Ga and is exposed in large domains of the Rio Maria Granite-Greenstone Terrane, southeastern Amazonian craton. It is intrusive in the greenstone belts of the Andorinhas Supergroup, in the Arco Verde Tonalite and Caracol Tonalitic Complex (older TTGs). Archean potassic leucogranites, younger TTGs and the Paleoproterozoic granites of Jamon Suite are intrusive in the Rio Maria Granodiorite.The more abundant rocks of the Rio Maria Granodiorite have granodioritic composition and display medium to coarse even-grained textures. These rocks show generally a gray color with greenish shades due to strongly saussuritized plagioclase, and weak WNW-ESE striking foliation. The significant geochemical contrasts between the occurrences of Rio Maria Granodiorite in different areas suggest that this unit corresponds in fact to a granodioritic suite of rocks derived from similar but distinct magmas. Mingling processes involving the Rio Maria Granodiorite and similar mafic to intermediate magmas are able to explain the constant occurrence of mafic enclaves in the granodiorite.The associated intermediate rocks occur mainly near Bannach, where mostly quartz diorite and quartz monzodiorite are exposed. The dominant rocks are mesocratic, dark-green rocks, with fine to coarse even-grained texture. The Rio Maria Granodiorite and associated intermediate rocks show similar textural and mineralogical aspects. They follow the calc-alkaline series trend in some diagrams. However, they have high-Mg#, Cr, and Ni conjugate with high contents of large ion lithophile elements (LILEs), typical of sanukitoids series. The patterns of rare earth elements of different rocks are similar, with pronounced enrichment in light rare earth elements (LREEs) and strong to moderate fractionation of heavy rare earth elements (HREEs).Field aspects and petrographic and geochemical characteristics denote that the granodiorites and intermediate rocks have sanukitoid affinity. However, geochemical data suggest that the intermediate rocks and the granodiorites are not related by a fractional crystallization process. It is concluded that the intermediate rocks derived from similar sources to the granodiorites, but probably result from a higher degree of melting, being both cogenetic, but not comagmatic rocks.Mineralogical aspects associated with experimental evidence suggest that the Rio Maria Granodiorite magma was relatively water-enriched (>4 wt.%), explaining the presence of hornblende at the liquidus and the absence of clinopyroxene and orthopyroxene in the studied rocks. The occurrence of well-preserved magmatic epidote crystals, admitting that the Rio Maria Granodiorite was emplaced at shallow crustal levels, points to a rapid ascent of the Rio Maria Granodiorite magma.     

Source and origin of active and fossil thermal spring systems,northern Upper Rhine Graben,Germany

Thermal water samples and related young and fossil mineralization from a geothermal system at the northern margin of the Upper Rhine Graben have been investigated by combining hydrochemistry with stable and Sr isotope geochemistry. Actively discharging thermal springs and mineralization are present in a structural zone that extends over at least 60 km along strike, with two of the main centers of hydrothermal activity being Wiesbaden and Bad Nauheim. This setting provides the rare opportunity to link the chemistry and isotopic signatures of modern thermal waters directly with fossil mineralization dating back to at least 500–800 ka. The fossil thermal spring mineralization can be classified into two major types: barite-(pyrite) fracture filling associated with laterally-extensive silicification; and barite, goethite and silica impregnation mineralization in Tertiary sediments. Additionally, carbonatic sinters occur around active springs. Strontium isotope and trace element data suggest that mixing of a hot (>100 °C), deep-sourced thermal water with cooler groundwater from shallow aquifers is responsible for present-day thermal spring discharge and fossil mineralization. The correlation between both Sr and S isotope ratios and the elevation of the barite mineralization relative to the present-day water table in Wiesbaden is explained by mixing of deep-sourced thermal water having high ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr and low δ³⁴S with shallow groundwater of lower ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr and higher δ³⁴S. The Sr isotope data demonstrate that the hot thermal waters originate from an aquifer in the Variscan crystalline basement at depths of 3–5 km. The S isotope data show that impregnation-type mineralization is strongly influenced by mixing with SO₄ that has high δ³⁴S values. The fracture style mineralization formed by cooling of the thermal waters, whereas impregnation-type mineralization precipitated by mixing with SO₄-rich groundwater percolating through the sediments.     

Chemostratigraphy of lava sequences from the Rio Itapicuru Greenstone Belt,Bahia State,Brazil

The Rio Itapicuru greenstone terrain of north-central Bahia State consists of belts of supracrustal rocks surrounding granitic plutons and domes. The basal supracrustal rocks are predominantly massive metabasalts with minor amounts of intercalated chemical sedimentary rocks and mafic tuffs. They are overlain by a middle unit of intermediate to acid pyroclastic rocks, lavas, and volcaniclastic sediments, and an upper unit of greywackes, sandstones and conglomerates.A geochemical study of major and trace elements of the volcanic rocks indicates the existence of a chemical discontinuity between the basaltic and the acid to intermediate members. The basalts are typical tholeiites with Ti, Zr, Sr, Y and Nb contents analogous to those of modern ocean-floor tholeiites or, alternatively, low-K tholeiites of primitive island arcs. In contrast, compositional variations of the hornblende-bearing andesites and dacites fall along indisputably calc-alkaline trends of low FeO and TiO₂ contents which decrease with increasing differentiation. The lithostratigraphic and chemical variations within lavas of the Rio Itapicuru greenstone are comparable to those described from the Western Australian greenstone belts. Only in greenstone belts of the Canadian type do thick calc-alkaline sequences containing abudant basaltic andesites overlie conformably and transitionally the underlying tholeiitic basalts. Elsewhere the calc-alkaline sequences, if present, do not contain basaltic andesites and are chemically unrelated to the underlying basalts.     

Geology of Santa Rita Coal Basin, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

Data on the sedimentology, stratigraphy, palynology, coal petrography and geochemistry of the Santa Rita Coal Basin, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, are presented. The investigations were carried out on samples obtained from drill cores of the sedimentary rocks of Tubarão Supergroup, Lower Permian of Paraná Basin.The sequence comprises more than 10 coal layers, three sets of which — SR₁, SR₂ and SR₃ — are correlated with the SB+MB, I₁F and I₂B+I₃B coal seams, respectively, of the Charqueadas Coal Basin, southwest of Santa Rita. The lower, as well as the upper contacts of the sedimentary sequences are transitional and very difficult to trace.The Itararé sequences (basal group) comprise pelites, conglomerates and sandstones. The pelites are the most representative lithologies. The overlying Rio Bonito Formation comprises pelites and coal seams with subordinate para- conglomerates.Palynological analysis has unravelled a rich microfloristic association with a predominance of specimens related to the Infraturma laevigati, apiculati and cingulicavati of the Turma Triletes (Pteridophyta) either in the coal seams or in the associated rocks. Monosaccites, Disaccites and Striatiti (Gymnospermae) are accessory forms in the palynological assemblage. Botryococcus and algae-like elements are less abundant.Comparative studies of cuticular fragments collected from boreholes N₃ and P₄ showed better preservation and greater concentration in the latter, which may indicate that borehole N₃ is located closer to the margin of the swamp.Reflectance measurements ranging from 0.43 Rr% to 0.50 Rr% allow the coal seams to be classified as sub-bituminous B and A, according to the ASTM classification. Microlithotype analyses have shown the predominance of carbominerite, trimacerite and vitrite. Vitrinite is the most prominent maceral group (20–50%), inertinite and exinite are subordinate. The mineral content is about 40%.Results from geochemical analyses, from either coal or associated pelites, show the association of boron and vanadium with the organic matter; gallium is related to the inorganic material.The available sedimentological, palaeontological and petrographical data suggest a paludal environment related to swamps and the coal seams present characteristics of “reed” moor limnotelmatic facies of an authochthonous/hypautochthonous origin.     

青藏高原冈底斯带东南部新生代多期岩浆作用及其构造意义

本文对拉萨地体东南缘东冈底斯带的花岗岩进行了详细的野外地质观察,基于侵入关系划分出了5期花岗岩.前4期花岗岩经历了不同程度的变形,呈片麻状构造,而最后1期花岗岩未经历变形,呈块状构造.锆石U-Pb定年揭示,5期花岗岩的形成年龄分别为63Ma、51Ma、50Ma、29Ma和26Ma.岩石学和岩石化学分析表明,前两期为花岗闪长岩,具有高的MgO(1.28％～1.84％)和CaO(3.16％～4.18％)含量,高的Mg#值(平均为43),中等K2O含量(1.5％～2.53％),低的K2O/Na2O(0.37～0.68),为准铝质Ⅰ型花岗岩.而后三期为花岗岩,其中第四期和第五期分别为浅色花岗岩脉和伟晶岩脉,具有明显低MgO(0.03％～0.27％)、Mg#值(2～15),低CaO(1.04％～1.6％),较高K2O(3.75％～6.93％)、K2O/Na2O(0.94～2.04),弱过铝质,显示S型花岗岩特征.研究表明,前三期花岗岩在冈底斯带其它地区也有广泛分布,而后两期花岗岩仅在研究区出露,这很可能说明拉萨地体东南缘从渐新世以来经历了与冈底斯带其它地区不同的构造演化历史.     

Geochemistry and origin of Dehoo manganese deposit,south Zahedan,southeastern Iran

Dehoo manganese deposit is located 52 km to the south of Zahedan in Sistan and Baluchestan Province, southeastern Iran. This deposit that lies in the central part of the Iranian Flysch Zone is lenticular in shape and lies above the micritic limestone-radiolarite cherts of the upper Cretaceous ophiolite unit. It is hosted within the reddish to brown radiolarite cherts and in places interlinks with them, so that the radiolarite chert packages play a key role for Mn mineralization in the region. Investigated ore-paragenetic successions and the geochemical characteristics of the Dehoo deposit were studied by means of major oxide, trace, and rare earth element (REE) contents that provide information as to the mineral origin. Strong positive correlations were found between major oxides and trace elements (Al₂O₃-TiO₂, r = 0.95; TiO₂-MgO, r = 0.94; Fe₂O₃-Al₂O₃, r = 0.90; MgO-Al₂O₃, r = 0.84; MgO-Fe₂O₃, r = 0.88; Fe₂O₃-TiO₂, r = 0.91; Fe₂O₃-K₂O, r = 0.74; Al₂O₃-K₂O, r = 0.69; Al₂O₃-V, r = 0.72; TiO₂-V, r = 0.73, and MgO-V, r = 0.69) that testify to the contribution of mafic terrigenous detrital material to the deposit. Chondrite-normalized REE patterns of all ore samples are characterized by negative Ce (0.06–0.15, average 0.10) and slightly positive Eu (0.29–0.45, average 0.36) anomalies. Based on ratios of Mn/Fe (average 56.23), Co/Ni (average 0.33), Co/Zn (average 0.38), U/Th (average 3.40), La/Ce (average 1.45), La_n/Nd_n (average 2.16), Dy_n/Yb_n (average 0.33), and light REE/heavy REE (average 8.40; LREE > HREE), as well as Ba (average 920 ppm) and total REE contents (average 6.96 ppm) negative Ce and positive Eu anomalies, Dehoo could be considered a predominantly submarine hydrothermal Mn deposit complemented by terrigenous detrital mafic material.