AN INTEGRATION METHOD WITH FITTING CUBIC SPLINE FUNCTIONS TO A NUMERICAL MODEL OF 2ND-ORDER SPACE-TIME DIFFERENTIAL REMAINDER——FOR AN IDEAL GLOBAL SIMULATION CASE WITH PRIMITIVE ATMOSPHERIC EQUATIONS

In this paper,the forecasting equations of a 2nd-order space-time differential remainder are deduced from the Navier-Stokes primitive equations and Eulerian operator by Taylor-series expansion.Here we introduce a cubic spline numerical model(Spline Model for short),which is with a quasi-Lagrangian time-split integration scheme of fitting cubic spline/bicubic surface to all physical variable fields in the atmospheric equations on spherical discrete latitude-longitude mesh.A new algorithm of"fitting cubic spline—time step integration—fitting cubic spline—……"is developed to determine their first-and2nd-order derivatives and their upstream points for time discrete integral to the governing equations in Spline Model.And the cubic spline function and its mathematical polarities are also discussed to understand the Spline Model’s mathematical foundation of numerical analysis.It is pointed out that the Spline Model has mathematical laws of"convergence"of the cubic spline functions contracting to the original functions as well as its 1st-order and 2nd-order derivatives.The"optimality"of the 2nd-order derivative of the cubic spline functions is optimal approximation to that of the original functions.In addition,a Hermite bicubic patch is equivalent to operate on a grid for a 2nd-order derivative variable field.Besides,the slopes and curvatures of a central difference are identified respectively,with a smoothing coefficient of 1/3,three-point smoothing of that of a cubic spline.Then the slopes and curvatures of a central difference are calculated from the smoothing coefficient 1/3 and three-point smoothing of that of a cubic spline,respectively.Furthermore,a global simulation case of adiabatic,non-frictional and"incompressible"model atmosphere is shown with the quasi-Lagrangian time integration by using a global Spline Model,whose initial condition comes from the NCEP reanalysis data,along with quasi-uniform latitude-longitude grids and the so-called"shallow atmosphere"Navier-Stokes primitive equations in the spherical coordinates.The Spline Model,which adopted the Navier-Stokes primitive equations and quasi-Lagrangian time-split integration scheme,provides an initial ideal case of global atmospheric circulation.In addition,considering the essentially non-linear atmospheric motions,the Spline Model could judge reasonably well simple points of any smoothed variable field according to its fitting spline curvatures that must conform to its physical interpretation.     

Classification of Northeast China Cold Vortex Activity Paths in Early Summer Based on K-means Clustering and Their Climate Impact

The classification of the Northeast China Cold Vortex(NCCV)activity paths is an important way to analyze its characteristics in detail.Based on the daily precipitation data of the northeastern China(NEC)region,and the atmospheric circulation field and temperature field data of ERA-Interim for every six hours,the NCCV processes during the early summer(June)seasons from 1979 to 2018 were objectively identified.Then,the NCCV processes were classified using a machine learning method(k-means)according to the characteristic parameters of the activity path information.The rationality of the classification results was verified from two aspects,as follows:(1)the atmospheric circulation configuration of the NCCV on various paths;and(2)its influences on the climate conditions in the NEC.The obtained results showed that the activity paths of the NCCV could be divided into four types according to such characteristics as the generation origin,movement direction,and movement velocity of the NCCV.These included the generation-eastward movement type in the east of the Mongolia Plateau(eastward movement type or type A);generation-southeast longdistance movement type in the upstream of the Lena River(southeast long-distance movement type or type B);generationeastward less-movement type near Lake Baikal(eastward less-movement type or type C);and the generation-southward less-movement type in eastern Siberia(southward less-movement type or type D).There were obvious differences observed in the atmospheric circulation configuration and the climate impact of the NCCV on the four above-mentioned types of paths,which indicated that the classification results were reasonable.     

Phase Two of the Integrative Monsoon Frontal Rainfall Experiment (IMFRE-II) over the Middle and Lower Reaches of the Yangtze River in 2020

Phase Two of the Integrative Monsoon Frontal Rainfall Experiment(IMFRE-II)was conducted over the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River during the period 16 June to 19 July 2020.This paper provides a brief overview of the IMFRE-II field campaign,including the multiple ground-based remote sensors,aircraft probes,and their corresponding measurements during the 2020 mei-yu period,as well as how to use these numerous datasets to answer scientific questions.The highlights of IMFRE-II are:(1)to the best of our knowledge,IMFRE-II is the first field campaign in China to use ground-based,airborne,and spaceborne platforms to conduct comprehensive observations over the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River;and(2)seven aircraft flights were successfully carried out,and the spectra of ice particles,cloud droplets,and raindrops at different altitudes were obtained.These in-situ measurements will provide a“cloud truth”to validate the ground-based and satellite-retrieved cloud and precipitation properties and quantitatively estimate their retrieval uncertainties.They are also crucial for the development of a warm(and/or cold)rain conceptual model in order to better understand the cloud-to-rain conversion and accretion processes in mei-yu precipitation events.Through an integrative analysis of ground-based,aircraft,and satellite observations and model simulations,we can significantly improve our cloud and precipitation retrieval algorithms,investigate the microphysical properties of cloud and precipitation,understand in-depth the formation and dissipation mechanisms of mei-yu frontal systems,and improve cloud microphysics parameterization schemes and model simulations.     

CHARACTERISTICS OF TROPICAL CYCLONES IMPACTING A NUCLEAR POWER PLANT IN SOUTHERN FUJIAN AND ESTIMATE OF MINIMUM CENTRAL PRESSURE

Based on tropical cyclone (TC) data for the period 1949 to 2008 and following the Gumbe-I method, Pearson-Ⅲ method and determinacy method, this article estimates the possible minimum central pressure of TCs affecting southern Fujian where a nuclear power will be located. Results show that the observed minimum central pressure of TCs agrees well with the results determined with the methods above and there is little difference between them (the minimum central pressure is 867.4 hPa and 868.1 hPa, respectively, in a 1,000-yr return period). Established with the theory of atmospheric dynamics, the determinacy method yields a result of 867.28 hPa/1000 years, only a little smaller than the result of the probability method. Because of randomicity in parameter adjustment with the Pearson-Ⅲ method whereas the determinacy method is theoretically solid and its estimates are the smallest of the three methods, it is therefore reasonable, for security and conservative concerns, to adopt the result determined with the determinacy method as the possible maximum intensity of TC (with the central pressure being 867.28 hPa in a 1,000-yr return period).     

A Comparison of Two Bulk Microphysics Parameterizations for the Study of Aerosol Impacts on an Idealized Supercell

Idealized supercell storms are simulated with two aerosol-aware bulk microphysics schemes(BMSs),the Thompson and the Chen-Liu-Reisner(CLR),using the Weather Research and Forecast(WRF)model.The objective of this study is to investigate the parameterizations of aerosol effects on cloud and precipitation characteristics and assess the necessity of introducing aerosols into a weather prediction model at fine grid resolution.The results show that aerosols play a decisive role in the composition of clouds in terms of the mixing ratios and number concentrations of liquid and ice hydrometeors in an intense supercell storm.The storm consists of a large amount of cloud water and snow in the polluted environment,but a large amount of rainwater and graupel instead in the clean environment.The total precipitation and rain intensity are suppressed in the CLR scheme more than in the Thompson scheme in the first three hours of storm simulations.The critical processes explaining the differences are the auto-conversion rate in the warm-rain process at the beginning of storm intensification and the low-level cooling induced by large ice hydrometeors.The cloud condensation nuclei(CCN)activation and auto-conversion processes of the two schemes exhibit considerable differences,indicating the inherent uncertainty of the parameterized aerosol effects among different BMSs.Beyond the aerosol effects,the fall speed characteristics of graupel in the two schemes play an important role in the storm dynamics and precipitation via low-level cooling.The rapid intensification of storms simulated with the Thompson scheme is attributed to the production of hail-like graupel.     

THE IMPACTS OF MADDEN-JULIAN OSCILLATION ON SPRING RAINFALL IN EAST CHINA

Phase composite analyses are conducted to investigate the possible effect of the Madden–Julian oscillation(MJO)on the spring rainfall anomalies in East China by using the Real-time Multivariate MJO(RMM)index from Australian Meteorological Bureau.The results show that the rainfall anomalies over the mid-and lower-valley of Yangtze River are positive when the MJO shifts eastward to the mid-and eastern-Indian Ocean,and anomalous precipitation over South China are positive when the MJO moves further eastward to the maritime continent,whereas spring rainfall anomalies over East China are negative in the other MJO episodes.The MJO impacts on the precipitation over East China result from the changes in large-scale atmospheric circulation as well as vorticity and water vapor transportation in the mid-and lower-troposphere.     

Hydro-climatic Characteristics of Yarlung Zangbo River Basin since the Last Glacial Maximum

Global climate changes significantly impact the water condition of big rivers in glacierized high mountains. However,there is a lack of studies on hydrological changes within river basins caused by climate changes over a geological timescale due to the impossibility of direct observations. In this study, we examine the hydro-climatic variation of the Yarlung Zangbo River Basin in the Tibet Plateau since the Last Glacial Maximum(LGM) by combining δ18 O proxy records in Indian and Omani caves with the simulated Indian summer monsoon, surface temperature, precipitation, evapotranspiration and runoff via the Community Climate System Model and the reconstructed glacier coverage via the Parallel Ice Sheet Model. The mean river runoff was kept at a low level of 145 billion cubic meters per year until an abrupt increase at a rate of 8.7 million cubic meters per year in the B?lling-Aller?d interval(BA). The annual runoff reached a maximum of 250 billion cubic meters in the early Holocene and then reduced to the current value of 180 billion cubic meters at a rate of 6.4 million cubic meters per year. The low runoff in the LGM and Heinrich Stadial 1(HS1) is likely attributed to such a small contribution of precipitation to runoff and the large glacier cover. The percentage of precipitation to runoff was only 20%during the LGM and HS1. Comparison of glacier area among different periods indicates that the fastest deglaciation occurred during the late HS1, when nearly 60% of glacier area disappeared in the middle reach, 50% in the upper reach,and 30% in the lower reach. The rapid deglaciation and increasing runoff between the late HS1 and BA may have accelerated widespread ice-dam breaches and led to extreme outburst flood events. Combining local geological proxy records and regional simulations could be a useful approach for the study of paleo-hydrologic variations in big river basins.     

Verification of Subseasonal-to-Seasonal Forecasts for Major Stratospheric Sudden Warmings in Northern Winter from 1998/99 to 2012/13

This study reports verification results of hindcast data of four systems in the subseasonal-to-seasonal(S2 S) prediction project for major stratospheric sudden warmings(MSSWs) in northern winter from 1998/99 to 2012/13. This report deals with average features across all MSSWs, and possible differences between two MSSW types(vortex displacement and split types). Results for the average features show that stratospheric forecast verifications, when further averaged among the four systems, are judge...     

南京三千公尺高空之风向与天气之预测

晚近日本籐原笑平(Fujiwhora)博士于地球物理杂志发表「根据三千公尺高空等压线,以预测天气之一例证」一文,谓日本最近用三千公尺高空之等压线,作每日天气之预测,已得相当成就。氏之经验法则谓自九月以迄五月,日本太平洋沿岸,三千公尺高空之等压线,来自西南者,可形去致雨,而来自西北者,则可期晴明。此种倾向颇为显著。     

Causes of the Extreme Hot Midsummer in Central and South China during 2017:Role of the Western Tropical Pacific Warming

This study investigates why an extreme hot midsummer occurred in Central and South China(CSC) during 2017. It is shown that the western North Pacific subtropical high(WNPSH) was abnormally intensified and westward-extending,resulting in anomalous high pressure and consequent extreme heat over CSC. The abnormal WNPSH was favored by the warming of the western tropical Pacific(WTP), which was unrelated to ENSO and manifested its own individual effect.The WTP warming enhanced the convection in-situ and led to anomalous high pressure over CSC via a local meridional circulation. The influence of the WTP was confirmed by CAM4 model experiments. A comparison between the 2017 midsummer and 2010 midsummer(with a stronger WNPSH but weaker extreme heat) indicated that the influence of the WNPSH on extreme heat can be modulated by the associated precipitation in the northwestern flank.The role of the WTP was verified by regression analyses on the interannual variation of the WTP sea surface temperature anomaly(SSTA). On the other hand, the WTP has undergone prominent warming during the past few decades, resulting from decadal to long-term changes and favoring extreme warm conditions. Through a mechanism similar to the interannual variation, the decadal to long-term changes have reinforced the influence of WTP warming on the temperature over CSC,contributing to the more frequent hot midsummers recently. It is estimated that more than 50% of the temperature anomaly over CSC in the 2017 midsummer was due to the WTP warming, and 40% was related to the decadal to long-term changes of the WTP SSTA.     

宁夏雾日和霜日的变化趋势分析

利用1961～2012年宁夏22个气象台站逐日天气现象、能见度、相对湿度资料,采用气候倾向率、趋势系数、最大熵谱分析、突变分析等方法,分析了宁夏各区域雾日数和霾日数的空间分布及变化趋势。结果表明：宁夏雾目数、霾日数均呈南北多、中间少的空间特征,但雾日数南部最多,而霾日数北部最多。近52a来,雾日数除南部山区呈不显著的减少趋势外,其他3个区域均呈增多趋势,而霾日数各区域均呈显著的增多趋势;另外,二者均有明显的阶段性演变特征,1961—1980年为明显偏少阶段,1981～2000年为波动变化阶段,2001年以后为明显偏多阶段;雾日数具有较明显的准7．5a,4．3a周期振荡,霾日数具有较明显的准4．6a、3,0a周期振荡;各区域雾日数与霾日数均未发生突变现象。     

呼和浩特市热度日和冷度日变化特征

利用1952—2006年呼和浩特市逐日平均温度统计了热度日(HDD)和冷度日(CDD)变化特征。表明,呼和浩特市HDD以1月最大(918度日),多年年均值为4527度日,55a间呈现比较明显的平稳降低态势,线性趋势率为-145.5度日/10a;CDD以7月最大(42度日);多年年均值为74度日,多年变化呈现波动上升的趋势,线性趋势率为16.5度日/10a。HDD和CDD的日数动态变化与二者多年变化趋势是一致的,分别呈现降低和上升的趋势。呼和浩特市理论供暖和制冷日数分别为271d和38d。     

北京地区热度日和冷度日的变化特征

应用1951—2004年北京逐日平均温度制作北京月、年的热度日 (HDD) 和冷度日 (CDD)。其中平均月HDD以1月 (687.9度日) 最大, 多年平均的年值为2922.6度日, 多年变化呈明显的下降趋势, 下降率为-99.5度日/10 a。平均月CDD以7月 (259.2度日) 最大。CDD多年平均的年值为826.7度日, 多年变化呈上升趋势, 上升率为39.0度日/10 a。1971—2004年HDD月城郊差值 (北京站-密云站) 冬季较大, 最大值为-73.8度日 (12月)。月CDD的城郊差值比HDD的差值小, 最大差值在8月 (34.0度日)。年HDD和CDD与年平均气温具有较高的相关性。年际、年代际HDD与年际、年代际平均气温具有反位相变化趋势, 随着气候增暖, 北京地区HDD将趋于减小, 冬季用于供暖的能源将减少; CDD将趋于增加, 夏季用于制冷降温的能源将增加。     

华南霾日和雾日的气候特征及变化

利用华南192个测站1961-2008年的地面气象观测资料,采用线性趋势分析、Mann-Kendall检验、计算气候趋势系数等统计诊断方法,分析了华南年霾日、雾日的时空特征和变化.结果表明:珠江三角洲、广东西北部和广西东北部为多霾区,海南为极少霾区;华南有三个多雾区,分别位于海南中西部地区,两广的西北部地区.两广雾日呈...     

枣庄地区热度日和冷度日的变化特征

利用枣庄1958—2006年49年逐日平均气温计算枣庄月、年的热度日（HDD）和冷度日（CDD）。通过统计分析发现：枣庄平均月热度日1月最大,10月最小;平均月冷度日7月最大,5月最小。HDD长期变化趋势呈下降趋势,趋势系数为-0．62,达到1％的板显著水平,其气候倾向率为-73．15度日／10a,反映枣庄冬季温度为上升趋势,冬季供暖的能源将可能减少;CDD呈上升趋势,趋势系数为0．21,不显著,其气候倾向率为12．58度日／10a,即反映枣庄夏季温度为缓慢上升趋势,夏季空调降温的能源将可能增加;枣庄HDD和CDD年际变化都存在突变现象,HDD的突变点发生在1988年,CDD突变点发生在1993年,与枣庄气温突变点接近;年平均HDD和CDD与年平均气温相关性较好;年代际HDD变化趋势与平均气温年代际变化呈反位相;年代际CDD与平均气温年代际变化具有同位相发展趋势。     

广州降水天数的统计规律

利用广州1973－2002年逐日的降水资料,用统计方法分析一次降水过程持续天数的规律。研究发现：广州30年来一次降水过程持续最长的天数为33d,且出现1－5d降水的可能性最大,其可能性多数随着降水天数增加而减少。计算降水时间序列的小波方差,发现广州一般降水天数主要存在3年和12年左右的振动,而暴雨以上的降水天数则存在1.5年和6年左右的振动。选取对应主要周期附近的尺度参数进行小波逆变换后,可以看出一般降水天数主要周期的年际变化趋于平缓,而对应暴雨天数的主要周期振荡的幅度逐渐增大。     

Fluctuations in US Freezing Rain Days

Freezing rain occurrences during a 50-year period, 1949/1950–1998/1999, derived from carefully examined records of 161 first-order stations distributed across the United States, were assessed for temporal fluctuations and trends. Classification of station fluctuations based on five 10-year periods revealed five unique distribution types in areas east of the Rockies. One of these five distributions, for stations located in the western Great Plains, experienced its greatest 10-year value at the end of the 50-year period. The other four regional distributions experienced their highest 10-year value in either of the first two 10-year periods. Nationally, the 10-year period when the greatest number of stations experienced their maximum value was 1949/1950–1958/1959, while the period when the greatest number of stations experienced their minimum value fell near the end of the 50-year record (1979/1980–1988/1989). The 50-year linear trends defined one region, the western Great Plains, with increasing values, while three areas of decreasing trend were identified; the Great Lakes, the eastern Ohio River valley, and southern New England. These analyses also indicate the need to examine and consider such time–space changes in the frequency of climate variables at various spatial scales when assessing weather risks and developing climate change scenarios.     

贵州不同等级降水日数气候特征及其与降水量的关系

利用1963 2011年贵州81个测站逐日降水资料,分析了近49年贵州不同等级降水日数的气候特征,探讨了不同等级降水日数在降水变化中的作用。结果表明,随着降水等级的上升,对应该等级的雨日迅速减少;贵州总雨日及小雨日呈西多东少的分布,而中雨日、大雨日及暴雨日则呈南多北少分布;近49年贵州总雨日、小雨日、中雨日、大雨日整体上都呈减少趋势,而暴雨日却呈一定的增加趋势;小雨日与总雨日都是在20世纪80年代初期之后逐步减少,21世纪初期之后降幅更加明显,而中雨日在20世纪60 80年代初多波动,在21世纪初后迅速下降,大雨日和暴雨日均经历了两次较明显的波动;随着降水等级的上升,雨日与降水量的相关系数迅速增大,小雨日与降水量的相关性最差,暴雨日与降水量的相关性最好;降水偏多年各个等级的降水日数明显偏多,小雨日、中雨日及大雨日变化较为显著,暴雨日变化不显著,降水偏少年各个等级雨日则明显减少,中雨日变化最为显著,其次为大雨日、暴雨日,小雨日变化不显著,因此,贵州地区总降水量增加主要是由于小雨日、中雨日、大雨日的增加引起的,降水量减少则主要是由于中雨日、大雨日及暴雨日的减少引起的,比较各个等级的降水日数,无论是在降水偏多年还是偏少年,中雨日和大雨日的变化都较显著。     

中国雨日的气候变化

利用1954～2000年中国160站的资料,通过计算趋势系数等现代统计诊断方法,研究了中国年、季、月雨日的时、空特征和气候变化.指出,中国年雨日已经明显减少,而且雨日的减少比降水量的减少明显得多,平均每10年减少雨日3.8天.各季的雨日都是负趋势;季雨日平均每10年减少1天左右.夏季雨日减少最明显(统计检验最显著),秋季雨日减少最多(雨日减少天数多).雨日长期趋势变化有明显的空间变化,东北、华北、西南区的雨日减少是最多的,这些地区的雨日每10年减少7～10天.雨日的长期趋势变化与降水量的长期变化并不完全一致.雨日的负趋势与降水的负趋势比较,不但范围广,而且强度大(负趋势绝对值大).中国年降水量明显的负趋势仅位于华北(34°N～38°N,109°E～122°E),而雨日减少最多的地区是东北、华北、西南,范围比降水量大得多.季雨日的长期变化与季降水量的长期变化的差别很大.中国没有一个季节、一个测站的雨日有明显的正趋势变化,但是,降水量仅在秋季是大范围的负趋势,夏季降水量有些测站是明显正趋势,冬季降水量只是小范围的负趋势(冬季的降水量在增加),在冬季,东北仅是很小范围的降水量在减少,而雨日是大范围的明显减少.