Evolution of accelerographs, data processing, strong motion arrays and amplitude and spatial resolution in recording strong earthquake motion

This paper presents a review of the advances in strong motion recording since the early 1930s, based mostly on the experiences in the United States. A particular emphasis is placed on the amplitude and spatial resolution of recording, which both must be ‘adequate’ to capture the nature of strong earthquake ground motion and response of structures. The first strong motion accelerographs had optical recording system, dynamic range of about 50 dB and useful life longer than 30 years. Digital strong motion accelerographs started to become available in the late 1970s. Their dynamic range has been increasing progressively, and at present is about 135 dB. Most models have had useful life shorter than 5–10 years. One benefit from a high dynamic range is early trigger and anticipated ability to compute permanent displacements. Another benefit is higher sensitivity and hence a possibility to record smaller amplitude motions (aftershocks, smaller local earthquakes and distant large earthquakes), which would augment significantly the strong motion databases. The present trend of upgrading existing and adding new stations with high dynamic range accelerographs has lead to deployment of relatively small number of new stations (the new high dynamic range digital instruments are 2–3 times more expensive than the old analog instruments or new digital instruments with dynamic range of 60 dB or less). Consequently, the spatial resolution of recording, both of ground motion and structural response, has increased only slowly during the past 20 years, by at most a factor of two. A major (and necessary) future increase in the spatial resolution of recording will require orders of magnitude larger funding, for purchase of new instruments, their maintenance, and for data retrieval, processing, management and dissemination. This will become possible only with an order of magnitude cheaper and ‘maintenance-free’ strong motion accelerographs. In view of the rapid growth of computer technology this does not seem to be (and should not be) out of our reach.     

Effect of tilt on strong motion data processing

In the near-field of an earthquake the effects of the rotational components of ground motion may not be negligible compared to the effects of translational motions. Analyses of the equations of motion of horizontal and vertical pendulums show that horizontal sensors are sensitive not only to translational motion but also to tilts. Ignoring this tilt sensitivity may produce unreliable results, especially in calculations of permanent displacements and long-period calculations. In contrast to horizontal sensors, vertical sensors do not have these limitations, since they are less sensitive to tilts. In general, only six-component systems measuring rotations and accelerations, or three-component systems similar to systems used in inertial navigation assuring purely translational motion of accelerometers can be used to calculate residual displacements.     

安徽强震动台站场地响应研究

采用H/V谱比法,利用安徽强震台网记录的波形数据,计算了3个强震台的场地响应。结果表明,当台站场地为基岩或覆盖层较薄时,由地脉动和S波数据分别计算出的谱比曲线一致性很好。当覆盖层大于30.5 m的时候,两者的放大因子有差异,即用S波计算的场地放大响应要明显大于用脉动计算的场地响应。     

福州盆地强地面运动特征的有限元数值模拟

区域性地震波强地面运动的量化数值模拟分析结果可以用来指导城市规划建设,并在防震减灾中发挥重要作用. 本文采用有限元数值模拟方法来模拟由地震激发的区域地震波强地面运动过程,并得到地表峰值速度和加速度的分布特征.考虑到福州是东南沿海的重要省会城市,其明显的盆地结构特征使它很容易遭受强地震灾害的影响. 因此本文以福州盆地为主要研究对象,假定盆地的主要断层某一位置在未来可能发生灾害性地震,则该地震会激发地震波的强地面运动,并由于地形、沉积层等主要影响,在盆地内部发生放大.通过对地震波传播过程的数值模拟和后处理分析,给出了该盆地的地表峰值位移、峰值速度和峰值加速度分布图谱.该图谱可为未来的福州城市规划和抗震减灾提供定量科学参考依据.     

Simulation of strong earthquake motion by explosions — experiments at the Lyaur testing range in Tajikistan

Strong motion data of 10 controlled explosion experiments conducted in 1977 at the Lyaur testing range in the Republic of Tajikistan are revisited. The explosions were detonated in arrays, with time delay between detonation of array lines. Ground accelerations, as large as 1.6g, were recorded at 4 sites by SMA-1 accelerographs. The records were recently digitized and processed with modern accelerogram data processing software. The amplitude and spectral characteristics of these data are here compared with those of strong earthquake shaking data and other published explosion data. The comparison of the Fourier amplitude spectra with estimates by recent empirical scaling laws for strong ground motion, in the near-field of earthquakes, suggests that such explosions can offer powerful possibilities (at present forgotten and neglected) for testing of almost full-scale structures (1/2 to 1/3 scaled models). It is suggested that by going into rather than avoiding the nonlinear zone surrounding the explosions, new testing methods can be developed to simulate near-field nonlinear strong motion of soft soils, found in most metropolitan areas in the seismically active regions.     

隐伏和出露地表断层近断层地表运动特征的研究进展

本文介绍了在强震地震学研究方面国内外目前所关注的重要问题：隐伏断层和出露地表断层在地震发生时近断层地表运动特征存在着明显的差异。根据近几十年全球发生的中强地震的地表运动参数的统计分析所得的结果表明,由隐伏断层所造成的近断层地表运动强度（速度、加速度）大于出露地表断层所产生的地表运动强度,虽然发生在出露地表断层的地震往往可造成较大的近断层地表位移,但是当地震矩震级（MW）达到 7.5 级以上的时候,近断层地表加速度和速度在近源区却出现了饱和现象。对该问题的深入研究有着十分重要的科学意义和工程应用价值。本文着重介绍了当前国际上对该问题的研究现状,并且建议在此基础上利用三维有限差分断层动力学模型,模拟断层的动态破裂过程以及近断层地表运动的特征。     

强地震动估计和地震危险性评定

本文介绍了近几年获取的强震记录中显示出的地震动特征，诸如近断裂的破裂方向性效应、上盘效应、影响地震波传播的地壳波导效应、沉积盆地的放大效应和盆地边缘效应；归纳了强地震动估计的三种方法，简要综述了经验性衰减模型、预测强地震动的随机法和宽频带格林函数法；讨论了估计活断层引起的地震动所应把握的要点。     

Comparison between different techniques for evaluation of predominant periods using strong ground motion records and microtremors in Pereira Colombia

This paper presents a comparison between different techniques for evaluation of predominant periods in soft soil, for the urban area of Pereira city, Western Colombia. In this study we used microtremor and strong ground motion records obtained by a local array of seven accelerographs stations deployed in the city. Response spectra and spectral ratios have been calculated and compared with strong seismic events recorded in solid rock and soft soil stations. These observations allowed the determination of dominant response spectra for several sectors in the urban area. For the microtremor measurements and earthquake data, dominant periods were determined using interpretation of Fourier amplitude spectra and Nakamura's technique. A comparison between dominant periods obtained from strong ground motion records and those obtained from microtremor measurements show similarities, which is in the range 0.2–0.5 s. A preliminary version of a site response map for Pereira city was obtained from this analysis.     

2008年汶川地震后的三次强余震地表峰值加速度衰减场研究

利用甘肃省强震动台站获取的2008年汶川地震后的三次强余震记录资料,分别研究了在甘肃南部地区的地表自由场加速度衰减场,认为地震引起的地表峰值加速度(PGA)随震中距的衰减基本都遵从幂指数规律,衰减的形式基本相同,但是三次强余震的衰减指数之间也存在着一定的差异.因此要得到陇南地区的中强地震动衰减的普遍规律,尚需做进一步的研究.     

最不利设计地震动研究

实际记录到的真实地震动在工程结构的抗震研究、分析和设计中往往作为一种施加到结构上使结构振动，直至破坏的地震荷载．如何合理选择真实的地震动记录作为研究结构地震反应的输入，一直是国内外抗震研究和设计中引人关注的重要问题．本文首先提出了最不利设计地震动的概念；然后在收集到的国内外5000余条被认为有重要意义的地震动记录基础上，利用综合估计地震动潜在破坏势的方法，对４种场地类型分别给出了长周期、短周期和中周期结构的国内外最不利设计地震动；最后通过几类不同结构的地震反应分析，初步验证了本文所确定的最不利设计地震动的可靠性和合理性．      

Study on the severest real ground motion for seismic design and analysis

How to select the adequate real strong earthquake ground motion for seismic analysis and design of trucures is an essential problem in earthquake engineering research and practice.In the paper the concept of the severest design ground motion is proposed and a method is developed for comparing the severity of the recorded strong ground motions.By using this method the severest earthquake ground motions are selected out as seismic inputs to the structures to be designed from a database that consists of more than five thousand significant strong ground moton records collected over the world.The selected severest ground motions are very likely to be able to drive the structures to their critical response and thereby result in the highest damage potential.It is noted that for different structures with diffferent predominant natural periods and at different sites where structures are located the severest design ground motions are usually different.Finally.two examples are illustrated to demonstrate the rationality of the concept and the reliability of the selected design motion.     

Strong motion observations and recordings from the great Wenchuan Earthquake

The National Strong Motion Observation Network System （NSMONS） of China is briefly introduced in this paper. The NSMONS consists of permanent free-field stations, special observation arrays, mobile observatories and a network management system. During the Wenchuan Earthquake, over 1,400 components of acceleration records were obtained from 460 permanent free-field stations and three arrays for topographical effect and structural response observation in the network system from the main shock, and over 20,000 components of acceleration records from strong aftershocks occurred before August 1, 2008 were also obtained by permanent free-field stations of the NSMONS and 59 mobile instruments quickly deployed after the main shock. The strong motion recordings from the main shock and strong aftershocks are summarized in this paper. In the ground motion recordings, there are over 560 components with peak ground acceleration （PGA） over 10 Gal, the largest being 957.7 Gal. The largest PGA recorded during the aftershock exceeds 300 Gal.     

2012年唐山4.8级地震强震动记录特征及场地相关特性分析

2012年5月28日河北省唐山市古冶区与滦县交界发生4.8级地震, 国家强震动台网中心在河北、 天津和北京的94个强震动台站记录到了本次地震的加速度。 本文给出了获取记录的强震动台站分布及强震动记录结果, 统计了强震动记录数量随震中距的变化, 给出了3个较小震中距台站记录到的加速度时程; 绘制了空间地震动峰值加速度等值线图及周期0.2 s、 2.0 s加速度反应谱值的等值线, 发现峰值加速度等值线与长周期加速度反应谱等值线极值分布具有明显地域差异, 分析认为是由于厚沉积层对长周期地震动具有放大作用造成的。 通过强震动记录与适用于本区的三个衰减关系对比, 分析了此次地震的峰值加速度衰减特征, 同时研究了周期0.2 s、 2.0 s加速度反应谱值的衰减特征, 周期2.0 s反应谱值随震中距的衰减与衰减关系能较好地对应, 然而在震中距100～130 km沉积层较厚的集中地区, 表现出了实际记录较衰减关系值偏大的现象, 认为同样是由于厚沉积层对地震动加速度反应谱长周期的放大作用导致的。 研究了震中距差别不大的情况下, 场地类型与沉积层厚度对反应谱特征周期的影响, 对比基岩台站与软弱地基土层台站的强震动记录反应谱, 发现软弱土层台站的土层对地震动有一定的放大作用, 导致中长周期地震动被放大, 对比位于沉积层较薄的隆起区台站与位于沉积层较厚的凹陷区台站强震动记录反应谱, 发现厚的沉积层不仅对反应谱长周期有放大的作用, 同时也会使得反应谱特征周期值变大。     

A new definition of strong motion duration and related parameters affecting the response of medium–long period structures

This study presents a new definition of the strong motion duration combining the alternative bracketed and significant duration definitions. Based on the time integral of the absolute ground velocity, a new index is defined, as cumulative absolute displacement (CAD), and used to estimate the strong motion duration. The proposed bracketed-significant duration t_bs is found to be well correlated with the strong motion part of the records, especially in the case of near-source events. The duration t_bs and the CAD index are used to assess the anticipated structural behavior of medium–long period structures.     

2007年宁洱6.4级地震强震动观测记录

"十五"期间建设并投入试运行的中国数字强震动台网云南区域台网有20多个强震动台站记录到宁洱6.4级地震产生的地面运动。记录的最大峰值加速度为431.2cm/s2,这是我国大陆自开展强震动观测以来在一次强震中同时获取记录最多的一次,初步展现了"十五"强震动台站建设的成效。     

Characteristics of amplitude and duration for near fault strong ground motion from the 1999 Chi-Chi, Taiwan Earthquake

A great number of free-field ground motion records are obtained during the 1999 Chi-Chi, Taiwan, earthquake. Records from 130 near fault free-field stations within 55 km to the causative fault surface are used as database, and characteristics of earthquake peak ground acceleration, velocity, displacement and duration are analyzed. According to this study, near fault ground motions are strongly affected by distance to fault, fault rupture directivity, site condition, as well as thrust of hanging wall. Compared with empirical strong ground motion attenuation relations used in China, US and Japan, the PGAs and PGVs recorded in this earthquake are not as large as what we have expected for a large earthquake as magnitude 7.6. However, the largest PGV and PGD worldwide were recorded in this event, which are 292 cm/s and 867 cm, respectively. Caused by nonlinear site effects of soil, peaks and corresponding ratios on E-class site were markedly different from those on other sites. Just as observed in historic earthquakes, fault rupture directivity effects caused significant differences between peaks of ground motion of two horizontal components, but took very slight effects on the duration of ground motion. The significant velocity pulses associated with large PGVs and PGDs, as well as large permanent displacements, which may result from the large thrust of the hanging wall, became the outstanding character of this event. Based on this study, we point out that 3D waveform modeling is needed to understand and predict near fault ground motion of large earthquakes.     

宁洱6．4级地震强震动观测记录异常场地影响分析

“十五”期间建设并投入试运行的中国数字强震动台网云南区域台网有20多个强震动台站记录到宁洱6．4级地震产生的地面运动。但值得注意的是,位于实地考察得到的Ⅵ度以上烈度区内或者其附近的4个强震台站,从加速度峰值、速度峰值与烈度的对应关系来看,与实际震害现象反映出的烈度有一定差异。究其原因,地震动幅值的大小和震级的大小有着直接的关系,但同时也和地震波的传播途径及场地条件等因素有关。因此,从场地因素的角度出发,从覆盖土层、地形地貌和地质构造条件等方面对造成强震动记录值偏大的原因进行了调查分析。在此基础上,对今后云南地区地震动研究场地影响的考虑提出了一些思路和建议。     

用强震记录检验深厚土层小应变下一维等效线性化土层地震反应

本文以强震记录为基础,通过土层地震反应计算得到了地表加速度与加速度反应谱,对比研究了由强震记录得到的地表加速度以及由地表加速度得到的与土层地震反应相同阻尼下的加速度反应谱.结果表明:在高频段与中频段,用一维等效线性化计算得到的土层地震反应加速度值与反应谱值比地表实测得到的加速度记录值与加速度反应谱值偏低;但在低频段,计...     

地震动幅值沿深度变化研究

以美国加州强震观测计划(CSMIP)的6个土工台阵和日本Hosokura矿台阵为研究对象, 以323组三分量地表和地下地震动峰值数据为基础, 按照台阵场地的软硬和土层分布, 将其分为基岩、 土层和ldquo;土层/基岩rdquo;台阵. 对于同一类台阵记录的所有地震, 分别按照震级和地表地震动峰值的大小将其分类. 对于同一类台阵的各类地震, 分别对加速度、 速度和位移峰值沿深度的变化进行统计分析, 得到沿深度变化的峰值比, 并且用非线性最小平方法, 采用指数衰减模型, 对峰值比沿深度变化曲线进行拟合. 通过对各类场地的各类地震的分析, 得到了地震动峰值沿深度变化的初步规律.      

Characteristics of strong ground motion data recorded in the Gubbio sedimentary basin (Central Italy)

Various authors, analysing the set of accelerograms recorded at Gubbio Piana (GBP) (central Italy), have demonstrated that strong amplification occurs at this accelerometric station, which is installed within an alluvial basin. In particular, Ambraseys et al. [(2005a), Bull Earthq Eng 3:1–53; (2005b), Bull Earth Eng 3:55–73] observed that the strong motion peaks at GBP greatly exceed the median values predicted by the attenuation relationships they derived for Europe. In this work, we analyse and discuss some characteristics of the ground motion recorded at the GBP station. We show that the ground motion parameters, such as peak-ground acceleration and peak-ground velocity, are strongly influenced by the presence of locally induced surface waves that produce both a lengthening of the significant shaking duration and an increase in the peak values with respect to a nearby bedrock site. The basin-induced surface waves are observed in the three components of motion and their effects on the peak values are particularly evident in the vertical component. In the frequency domain, the energy of the surface waves is mostly restricted to the frequency band 0.4–0.8 Hz for both the horizontal and vertical components. The horizontal and vertical Fourier amplitudes are also very similar, and this indicates that the H/V spectral ratio technique is not applicable to describing the site response due to the propagation of seismic wave in a complex 2D/3D geological structure. Finally, a preliminary polarization analysis shows that the directions of polarization, as well as the degree of elliptical polarization, exhibit a strong variability with time, that may be related to a complex propagation of Love and Rayleigh waves within the basin.