Structuring decision-making for ecosystem-based management

Ecosystem-based management (EBM) has been widely accepted as the new paradigm to manage marine ecosystems. Although various efforts have been made to define key components, guidelines, and principles, in support of its implementation, there is still a gap between theory and practice. To implement EBM, managers require a decision-making framework in which the values of constituents, objectives and performance measures are consistent and used to evaluate and choose between alternatives. Structured decision-making (SDM) is a systematic approach that can contribute to develop this framework for EBM. SDM was used for the on-going EBM process on the west coast of Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. This case study provides insights into how SDM can be implemented for EBM, as well as some challenges and opportunities encountered during the process.     

The importance of marine spatial planning in advancing ecosystem-based sea use management

During the past 10 years, the evolution of marine spatial planning (MSP) and ocean zoning has become a crucial step in making ecosystem-based, sea use management a reality. The idea was initially stimulated by international and national interest in developing marine protected areas, e.g., the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. More recent attention has been placed on managing the multiple use of marine space, especially in areas where conflicts among users and the environment are already clear, e.g., in the North Sea. Even more recent concern has focused on the need to conserve nature, especially ecologically and biologically sensitive areas, in the context of multi-use planning of ocean space. Despite academic discussions and the fact that some countries already have started implementation, the scope of MSP has not been clearly defined. Terms such as integrated management, marine spatial management, and ocean zoning are all used inconsistently. This is one of the reasons why its importance is not more seriously reflected at the levels of policy and decision-making in most countries. This article attempts to deal with this problem. It describes why MSP is an essential step to achieve ecosystem-based sea use management, how it can be defined and what its core objectives are. The article concludes with an analysis of the use and achievements of MSP worldwide, with particular focus on new approaches in Europe.     

Key principles of marine ecosystem-based management

Ecosystem-Based Management (EBM) has gained international popularity in recent years, but the lack of consensus on its definition has precluded the use of a universal implementation framework. The large number and variety of principles that make up EBM, and the diversity in perspectives among key management players, has impeded the practical application of EBM. Agreement on a list of the essential ingredients of EBM is vital to successful application. A frequency analysis of EBM principles was conducted to identify the Key Principles that currently define EBM, from a list of twenty-six principles extracted from a subset of the EBM theoretical/conceptual literature (covering a range of published sources across disciplines and application types). Fifteen Key Principles were identified (in descending frequency of appearance in the literature): Consider Ecosystem Connections, Appropriate Spatial & Temporal Scales, Adaptive Management, Use of Scientific Knowledge, Integrated Management, Stakeholder Involvement, Account for Dynamic Nature of Ecosystems, Ecological Integrity & Biodiversity, Sustainability, Recognise Coupled Social-Ecological Systems, Decisions reflect Societal Choice, Distinct Boundaries, Interdisciplinarity, Appropriate Monitoring, and Acknowledge Uncertainty. This paper also examines the development of EBM principles over time, leading to predictions on the directions EBM will take in the future. The frequency analysis methodology used here can be replicated to update the Key Principles of EBM in the future. Indeed, further research on potential emerging Key Principles such as ‘Consider Cumulative Impacts’, ‘Apply the Precautionary Approach’ and ‘Explicitly Acknowledge Trade Offs’ will help shape EBM and its successful application in the management of marine activities.     

The perils and promise of futures analysis in marine ecosystem-based management

Ecosystem-based management is now widely accepted as the standard strategy for achieving sustainable delivery of marine and estuarine ecosystem services. The ubiquity and rate of change in marine ecosystems necessitate incorporating visions of future ecosystem states into ecosystem management strategies. Creating visions of the future enables policy makers to set realistic objectives and targets, and to explore the consequences of potential management decisions on ecosystems under multiple potential scenarios of change. Several classes of futures are used in marine ecosystem management program, and three are highlighted here: visioning, predictive models, and scenario analysis. Each approach is briefly described, and their use in current marine ecosystem management programs in North America is reviewed. In particular, the importance of using scenario analysis to identify and incorporate the influence of exogenous drivers into management strategies is highlighted. Then, some of the perils and promises associated with each approach are described, and a way forward is proposed that incorporates multiple types of future envisioning approaches into management programs. Key contributions of future analyses include highlighting connections and trade-offs among ecosystem components, setting realistic targets, and incorporating exogenous drivers, and their uncertainties, into ecosystem management programs.     

The Norwegian plan for integrated ecosystem-based management of the marine environment in the Norwegian Sea

A White Paper on a new integrated management plan for the Norwegian Sea was launched by the Norwegian government in May 2009. Following international guidelines for ecosystem-based management, the plan provides an overall framework for managing all human activities (mainly oil and gas industry, fishing, and shipping) in the area to ensure the continued production and function of the ecosystem. The plan is based on an assessment of the present and projected future impact of human activities and of the interactions between them, taking into account deficits in current knowledge of ecosystem state and dynamics. Areas of particular value in terms of biodiversity or biological production were identified. In each of these valuable areas, any access for substantial human activity is to be carefully managed. To monitor the overall development of the Norwegian Sea, a set of indicators with associated environmental quality objectives have been selected. The approach used builds upon experience gained from the first integrated Norwegian management plan for a marine area, the Barents Sea–Lofoten region, developed in 2002–2006. Work towards a Norwegian management plan for the North Sea, including Skagerrak, was initiated in 2009.     

Expanding fisheries co-management to ecosystem-based management: A case in the Shiretoko World Natural Heritage area,Japan

Fisheries co-management in the Shiretoko World Natural Heritage area was expanded to ecosystem-based management, in which the fisheries sector plays an essential role in management. A marine management plan was drawn up to define the management objectives, strategies to maintain major species, and methods for ecosystem monitoring. A network of coordinating organizations from a wide range of sectors was established to integrate policy measures. Experience from this case could inform ecosystem-based management in other countries where large numbers of small-scale fishers take a wide range of species under a fisheries co-management regime.     

Understanding marine ecosystem based management: A literature review

Ecosystem based management takes into account the interconnectedness and interdependent nature of ecosystem components and emphasizes the importance of ecosystem structures and functions which provide a range of services. The concept has now been adopted by many international agreements and national governments and is in the process of being implemented. This paper seeks to review the literature and to analyze the understanding of the subject. The term is defined and its implementation in fisheries and for all marine uses is analyzed. It has been concluded that to understand marine ecosystem based management one must consider ecosystems as complex adaptive systems which can show changes at higher levels from actions and processes occurring at lower levels. Recognizing that humans are part of these complex adaptive systems is vital in that their actions along with other processes can lead to transformations in ecosystem functioning. This recognition is also important to show how society can sustainably exploit these resources and that the inclusion of all stakeholders in the management process is necessary to legitimize the process. The uses of the precautionary principle along with adaptive management are seen to be useful tools in implementing these insights into the management of natural resources. Finally, the need for reducing consumption of fish is considered.     

The Marine Planning Framework for South Australia: A new ecosystem-based zoning policy for marine management

The Marine Planning Framework for South Australia is a new large-scale, ecosystem-based zoning policy for management of development and use in the marine environment. Utilising the Geographic Information System (GIS), the model establishes four ecologically rated zones, derived from known ecological criteria. A series of goals, objectives and strategies represent the desired outcomes for each of the ecologically rated zones. A Performance Assessment System (PAS) will subsequently evaluate the success of the marine plans. Implementation will be supported by a collaborative whole-of-government approach. Marine plans will facilitate the delivery of long-term protection to the marine environment as a whole ecosystem, whilst enabling a broad range of activities to occur in a sustainable manner.     

Bringing stakeholders,scientists, and managers together through an integrated ecosystem assessment process

For decades, the scientific community has conducted essential background research and developed appropriate modeling tools in support of an ecosystem-based approach to natural resource management. Resource managers and the public, however, lack a clear roadmap for working with scientists to move beyond the traditional single-species approach. With current management processes so strongly focused on working in a species-by-species framework, there are entrenched cultural and institutional challenges to shifting those processes toward ecosystem-based management. We propose using the integrated ecosystem assessment process to both develop new management ideas for a particular ecosystem, and to help shift public policy processes and perceptions to embrace ecosystem approaches to management.     

Assessing the feasibility of ecosystem-based fisheries management in tropical contexts

This analysis documents the reasons for emerging interest in ecosystem-based fisheries management (EBFM) and relates this management model to others. It highlights the central challenges to EBFM in the tropical context and examines an ongoing project, Fisheries Improved for Sustainable Harvest (FISH), in the Philippines—likely the first EBFM project in the tropics. The Philippine legal and institutional context provides major governance challenges to EBFM, especially as management is scaled up. A monitoring framework with process and output criteria is applied to FISH to establish progress to date. Major institutional and governance challenges for EBFM will require monitoring, evaluation, and adaptation.     

The importance of data discovery and management in advancing ecosystem-based management

The aim of the Geospatial Assessment of Marine Ecosystems (GAME) project is to develop an inventory of habitat-related data within the Gulf of Mexico and East coast of Florida. This will serve as a foundation to develop a spatial framework for ecosystem-based management associated with regulatory and planning programs and areas of governmental coordination.     

Scientific advice in integrated ocean management: The process towards the Barents Sea plan

It is widely held that integrated management of ocean areas needs to be based on integrated scientific advice. Such advice crosses disciplinary and traditional sector boundaries. This paper aims to provide insight into the role of science and scientific knowledge in a process towards integrated ocean management. It does so by exploring the organization of the process towards the integrated management plan for the Barents Sea-Lofoten area in Norway. It sheds light on the complexity of management questions in a context characterized by uncertainty and political controversy, largely concerning petroleum activity. Scientists were asked to provide a dynamic view on these issues and have delivered important material that furthers the task of policy development. However, there is a persisting lack of understanding about the consequences of human impact on the ecosystem. The paper finishes by pointing at the need for a larger societal discussion on what activities we consider appropriate, considering the limits of science to provide the knowledge base for questions that transcend the environmental domain.     

A context for ecosystem-based fishery management: Developing concepts of ecosystems and sustainability

Ecosystems have been viewed both as chaotic, untamed nature, and as mechanical systems with predictable equilibrium states. A developing concept of ecosystems as “complex adaptive systems” lies between these extreme concepts, with recognizably patterned but not fully predictable behavior. Sustainability has also been redefined as humans have exploited and often depleted desirable natural resources. Fisheries management desires sustainable yield, but must rethink this concept within the ecosystem context. The most powerful union of “ecosystem” and “sustainability” acknowledges the defining characteristics of complex adaptive systems with the objective of identifying and sustaining healthy relationships within and between ecosystems, economies, and society.     

Stakeholder perspectives on ecosystem-based management of the Antarctic krill fishery

Information about stakeholder aspirations is a fundamental requirement for ecosystem-based management, but the detail is often elusive, and debates may focus on simplistic opposing positions. This is exemplified by the Antarctic krill fishery, which, despite a current operational catch limit equivalent to just 1% of the estimated biomass and actual annual catches much lower than this, is the subject of a high-profile debate framed around ambiguous concepts such as sustainability. Q methodology was applied to explore the detailed views of representatives of three stakeholder sectors (the fishing industry, conservation-focused non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and scientists from seven countries involved in research on the krill-based ecosystem). The analysis distinguished two clear groupings, one of which included the views of all NGO participants while the other included the views of fishing industry participants and a subset of the scientists. Key differences between the groups included the priority given to different management measures, and to continued commercial fishing. However, the results also revealed considerable overlap between viewpoints. Both groups prioritised the maintenance of ecosystem health and recognised the importance of defining management objectives. Also, neither group prioritised a decrease in catch limits. This suggests that most participants in the study agree that management should improve but do not perceive a major problem in the ecosystem's ability to support current catch levels. Cooperation to identify shared management objectives based on stakeholder aspirations for the ecosystem might enhance progress, whereas polarised discussions about preferred management measures or ambiguous concepts are likely to impede progress.     

An evaluation of progress in implementing ecosystem-based management of fisheries in 33 countries

The performance of 33 countries was evaluated for ecosystem-based management (EBM) of fisheries in three fields (principles, criteria and implementation) using quantitative ordination including uncertainty. No country rated overall as ‘good’, only four countries were ‘adequate’, while over half received ‘fail’ grades. A few developing countries performed better than many developed nations. Two case studies test the method. In Indonesia, Raja Ampat and Papua, rated similar to the national evaluation, but better performance might follow successful implementation of a planned EBM initiative. A workshop in Australia rated regional fisheries managed by New South Wales 20% lower for EBM than federally managed fisheries.     

The way forward with ecosystem-based management in tropical contexts: Reconciling with existing management systems

This paper discusses some of the challenges and opportunities that can arise when implementing ecosystem-based management (EBM) in tropical nations. EBM creates a new series of challenges, problems, and opportunities that must be considered in light of existing governance and management frameworks in a local context. The paper presents five case studies from different parts of the tropical world, including Oceania, insular and continental Southeast Asia, East Africa, and the Caribbean, which illustrate that the implementation of EBM in watershed and marine ecosystems offers a new series of challenges and opportunities for its inclusion with existing forms of environmental governance and management. The paper suggests that EBM is best thought of as an expansion of customary management (CM) and integrated coastal management (ICM), rather than a paradigm shift, and that it has certain benefits that are worth integrating into existing systems when possible. The paper concludes that the cultural and institutional context of CM as well as the experience, technical skills, and legal basis that serve ICM programs are logical platforms from which to build EBM programs. Some guidelines for creating hybrid management regimes are suggested. In sum, declining marine species and ecosystems require urgent action, necessitating utilization of existing paradigms such as ICM and CM as a foundation for building EBM.     

Effective ecosystem-based management must encourage regulatory compliance: A Gulf of California case study

The Northern Gulf of California is an area important for small-scale fisheries in terms of economic activity and food security, but widespread non-compliance with fisheries regulations impedes effective management of resources and conservation efforts. Where a previous study evaluated quantitatively a theoretical situation in which all regulations are perfectly followed, this article compares a suite of recently proposed ecosystem-based management (EBM) policies against the expected benefits of full enforcement of current regulations. Policies evaluated include no-take marine protected areas (MPAs), breeding period closures, changes in hook size and fishing effort, and gear-specific spatial closures. No-take MPAs yield ecological benefits over a wide range of MPA sizes and characteristics, but do not increase overall catch. Seasonal closures are effective at reducing overfishing for the depleted leopard grouper (Mycteroperca rosacea); changing the hook size of artisanal longlines does not increase catch of either the target species or the assemblage, and gear-specific fishery closures for crab traps near Puerto Peñasco are effective at reducing overfishing of blue crab (Callinectes bellicosus and C. arcuatus). In general, full enforcement of existing regulations outperforms these EBM policies in terms of conservation benefits, but it may be less palatable to stakeholders as it requires major reductions in catch.     

California Current Large Marine Ecosystem: Publicly available dataset of state and federal laws and regulations

Transitioning ocean governance into an ecosystem-based approach requires improved knowledge of ecosystems and existing management systems. While there has been increased effort to compile and synthesize ecological data, relatively little scholarship has been focused on improving and understanding ocean management systems. This paper presents a unique dataset that makes objective analyses of ocean management possible across multiple jurisdictions and sectors in the California Current. Following an explanation of the criteria used to compile relevant statutes and regulations, the paper suggests applications for the dataset including education and policy uses and ecosystem-based management tool development to identify and measure problems of fragmented management.