Residence time of non-methane hydrocarbons in the atmosphere

Little is known about the atmospheric distribution and residence time of hydrocarbons, although this is critical in evaluating their impact on the oceans. This paper reviews the sparse data on both global production and concentration of atmospheric hydrocarbons in marine and continental non-urban areas, and estimates the atmospheric residence time of these substances.     

Human health benefits supplied by Mediterranean marine biodiversity

This paper summarizes the overall benefits supplied by Mediterranean marine biodiversity to human health and highlights the anthropogenic and environmental causes that are threatening these benefits. First, the Mediterranean Sea is a valuable source of seafood, which is an important component of the so-called “Mediterranean diet”. This type of diet has several health benefits, including cardio and cancer protective effects, which are attributed to the high intake of seafood-derived n-3 (omega-3) fatty acids. Second, the Mediterranean marine organisms, particularly the benthic ones, have furnished a large variety of bioactive metabolites, some of which are being developed into new drugs to threat major human diseases such as cancer. Third, the Mediterranean coastal areas provide environments for practising maritime leisure activities that provide physical and psychological benefits to users. Despite all this, fishing, tourism, contamination and sea warming are deteriorating this rich marine ecosystem, which needs to be protected to assure human welfare.     

Climate change and the oceans – What does the future hold?

The ocean has been shielding the earth from the worst effects of rapid climate change by absorbing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. This absorption of CO₂ is driving the ocean along the pH gradient towards more acidic conditions. At the same time ocean warming is having pronounced impacts on the composition, structure and functions of marine ecosystems. Warming, freshening (in some areas) and associated stratification are driving a trend in ocean deoxygenation, which is being enhanced in parts of the coastal zone by upwelling of hypoxic deep water. The combined impact of warming, acidification and deoxygenation are already having a dramatic effect on the flora and fauna of the oceans with significant changes in distribution of populations, and decline of sensitive species. In many cases, the impacts of warming, acidification and deoxygenation are increased by the effects of other human impacts, such as pollution, eutrophication and overfishing.     

Climate and human health: synthesizing environmental complexity and uncertainty

Broad relationships between weather and human health have long been recognized, and there is currently a large body of research examining the impacts of climate change on human health. Much of the literature in this area examines climate–health relationships at global or regional levels, incorporating mostly generalized responses of pathogens and vectors to broad changes in climate. Far less research has been done to understand the direct and indirect climate-mediated processes involved at finer scales. Thus, some studies simplify the role of climate and may over- or under-estimate the potential response, while others have begun to highlight the subtle and complex role for climate that is contingent on other relevant processes occurring in natural and social environments. These fundamental processes need to be understood to determine the effects of past, current and future climate variation and change on human health. We summarize the principal climate variables and climate-dependent processes that are believed to impact human health across a representative set of diseases, along with key uncertainties in these relationships.     

Plastic ingestion by planktivorous fishes in the North Pacific Central Gyre

A significant amount of marine debris has accumulated in the North Pacific Central Gyre (NPCG). The effects on larger marine organisms have been documented through cases of entanglement and ingestion; however, little is known about the effects on lower trophic level marine organisms. This study is the first to document ingestion and quantify the amount of plastic found in the gut of common planktivorous fish in the NPCG. From February 11 to 14, 2008, 11 neuston samples were collected by manta trawl in the NPCG. Plastic from each trawl and fish stomach was counted and weighed and categorized by type, size class and color. Approximately 35% of the fish studied had ingested plastic, averaging 2.1 pieces per fish. Additional studies are needed to determine the residence time of ingested plastics and their effects on fish health and the food chain implications.     

Probability-credibility health risk assessment under uncertain environment

The ability to describe variables in a health risk model through probability theory enables us to estimate human health risk. These types of risk assessment are interpreted as probabilistic risk assessment (PRA). Generally, PRA requires specific estimate of the parameters of the probability density of the input variables. In all circumstances, such estimates of the parameters may not be available due to the lack of knowledge or information. Such types of variables are treated as uncertain variables. These types of information are often termed uncertainty which are interpreted through fuzzy theory. The ability to describe uncertainty through fuzzy set theory enables us to process both random variable and fuzzy variable in a single framework. The method of processing aleatory and epistemic uncertainties into a same framework is coined as hybrid method. In this paper, we are going to talk about such type of hybrid methodology for human health risk assessment. Risk assessment on human health through different pathways of exposure has been attempted many a times combining Monte Carlo analysis and extension principle of fuzzy set theory. The emergence of credibility theory enables transforming fuzzy variable into credibility distribution function which can be used in those hybrid analyses. Hence, an attempt, for the first time, has been made to combine probability theory and credibility theory to estimate risk in human health exposure. This method of risk assessment in the presence of credibility theory and probability theory is identified as probabilistic-credibility method (PCM). The results obtained are then interpreted through probability theory, unlike the other hybrid methodology where the results are interpreted in terms of possibility theory. The results obtained are then compared with probability-fuzzy risk assessment (PFRA) method. Generally, decision under hybrid methodology is made on the index of optimism. An optimistic decision maker estimates from the \(\alpha\)-cut at 1, whereas a pessimistic decision maker estimates from the \(\alpha\)-cut at 0. The PCM is an optimistic approach as the decision is always made at \(\alpha\)=1.     

Fuzzy process capability indices for quality control of irrigation water

Water covers over 70% of the Earth surface and is a very important resource to people and the environment. Water pollution affects drinking water, rivers, lakes and oceans all over the world. This consequently harms human health and the natural environment. Water pollution can also affect the crops. So, water pollution is an important issue for humanity. Therefore, the control of irrigation water is a necessity. In this paper, a methodology based on process capability indices (PCIs) has been presented to control the levels of pH, dissolved oxygen (DO) and temperature (T) in dam’s water for irrigation. Fuzzy PCIs have been proposed for this aim. The fuzzy estimates of $ \hat C_p Water covers over 70% of the Earth surface and is a very important resource to people and the environment. Water pollution affects drinking water, rivers, lakes and oceans all over the world. This consequently harms human health and the natural environment. Water pollution can also affect the crops. So, water pollution is an important issue for humanity. Therefore, the control of irrigation water is a necessity. In this paper, a methodology based on process capability indices (PCIs) has been presented to control the levels of pH, dissolved oxygen (DO) and temperature (T) in dam’s water for irrigation. Fuzzy PCIs have been proposed for this aim. The fuzzy estimates of and are obtained for pH, DO, and T based on Buckley’s interval estimation approach and based on fuzzy specification limits. An application has been made for Kesikk?prü Dam in Ankara, Turkey. In this paper, Buckley’s approach is re-arranged to obtain a triangular fuzzy membership function because it cannot be obtained from Buckley’s approach in some situation.     

Coral reef health and effects of socio-economic factors in Fiji and Cook Islands

This research focuses on coral reef health in the South Pacific region, an area of high global coral diversity. Coral reef health surrounding four island case studies in the Cook Islands and Fiji have been assessed in areas that have not been previously surveyed. This study compares four islands with barrier and fringing reefs that have different levels of economic development, population pressure, land-use practices, and marine management practices. This interdisciplinary research methodology includes both ecological and social data collection to further understanding of human environment interactions. In comparing the reefs with different socio-economic factors, this research shows that reefs with traditional systems of resources management are healthier, population pressure is not the main factor causing the demise of the reefs and agro-industry is the main industry causing the degradation of the reef in these four South Pacific Islands. In addition, researchers need to use a whole reef perspective to examine coral reef health.     

Organochlorine, Heavy Metal and Polyaromatic Hydrocarbon Pollutant Concentrations in the Great Barrier Reef (Australia) Environment: a Review

Past monitoring of heavy metals, organochlorine compounds and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) has found that pollutant concentrations are generally low within the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and World Heritage Area and are indicative of a relatively unpolluted environment. The exceptions are sites that are adjacent to human activity such as ports and harbours, urban centres and areas adjacent to intensive agricultural activity. These sites have elevated concentrations of a range of pollutants. Concentrations of dioxins have also been found to be elevated in marine park sediments. Elevated pollutant concentrations are generally the consequence of effluent discharge, urban stormwater, and agricultural and industrial runoff. However, a majority of Great Barrier Reef pollutant data are now dated, and contemporary information is required concerning the distribution and impact of pollutants in the Queensland marine environment. The utility of specialized monitoring tools such as biomarkers for tropical marine environments urgently needs to be examined. With this information, appropriate risk assessment and monitoring can be implemented and effective management strategies developed to protect tropical marine ecosystems including the Great Barrier Reef.     

Incidence of plastic fragments among burrow-nesting seabird colonies on offshore islands in northern New Zealand

Marine plastic pollution is ubiquitous throughout the world’s oceans, and has been found in high concentrations in oceanic gyres of both the northern and southern hemispheres. The number of studies demonstrating plastic debris at seabird colonies and plastic ingestion by adult seabirds has increased over the past few decades. Despite the recent discovery of a large aggregation of plastic debris in the South Pacific subtropical gyre, the incidence of plastics at seabird colonies in New Zealand is unknown. Between 2011 and 2012 we surveyed six offshore islands on the northeast coast of New Zealand’s North Island for burrow-nesting seabird colonies and the presence of plastic fragments. We found non-research related plastic fragments (0.031 pieces/m²) on one island only, Ohinau, within dense flesh-footed shearwater (Puffinus carneipes) colonies. On Ohinau, we found a linear relationship between burrow density and plastic density, with 3.5 times more breeding burrows in areas with plastic fragments found. From these data we conclude that plastic ingestion is a potentially a serious issue for flesh-footed shearwaters in New Zealand. Although these results do not rule out plastic ingestion by other species, they suggest the need for further research on the relationship between New Zealand’s pelagic seabirds and marine plastic pollution.     

Contributing to marine pollution by washing your face: Microplastics in facial cleansers

Plastics pollution in the ocean is an area of growing concern, with research efforts focusing on both the macroplastic (>5 mm) and microplastic (<5 mm) fractions. In the 1990s it was recognized that a minor source of microplastic pollution was derived from liquid hand-cleansers that would have been rarely used by the average consumer. In 2009, however, the average consumer is likely to be using microplastic-containing products on a daily basis, as the majority of facial cleansers now contain polyethylene microplastics which are not captured by wastewater plants and will enter the oceans. Four microplastic-containing facial cleansers available in New Zealand supermarkets were used to quantify the size of the polythelene fragments. Three-quarters of the brands had a modal size of <100 microns and could be immediately ingested by planktonic organisms at the base of the food chain. Over time the microplastics will be subject to UV-degradation and absorb hydrophobic materials such as PCBs, making them smaller and more toxic in the long-term. Marine scientists need to educate the public to the dangers of using products that pose an immediate and long-term threat to the health of the oceans and the food we eat.     

A review of pollutants in the sea-surface microlayer (SML): a unique habitat for marine organisms

Boundary layers between different environmental compartments represent critical interfaces for biological, chemical and physical processes. The sea-surface microlayer (uppermost 1-1000 microm layer) forms the boundary layer interface between the atmosphere and ocean. Environmental processes are controlled by the SML, and it is known to play a key role in the global distribution of anthropogenic pollutants. Due to its unique chemical composition, the upper organic film of the SML represents both a sink and a source for a range of pollutants including chlorinated hydrocarbons, organotin compounds, petroleum hydrocarbons, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and heavy metals. These pollutants can be enriched in the SML by up to 500 times relative to concentrations occurring in the underlying bulk water column. The SML is also a unique ecosystem, serving as an important habitat for fish eggs and larvae. Concentration ranges and enrichment factors of pollutants in the SML in different areas of the world's oceans have been critically reviewed, together with available toxicity data for marine biota found within the SML. Overall, the SML is highly contaminated in many urban and industrialized areas of the world, resulting in severe ecotoxicological impacts. Such impacts may lead to drastic effects on the marine food web and to fishery recruitment in coastal waters. Studies of the toxicity of fish eggs and larvae exposed to the SML contaminants have shown that the SML in polluted areas leads to significantly higher rates of mortality and abnormality of fish embryos and larvae.     

Assessing health of the Bay of Fundy--concepts and framework

A discussion of health and ecosystem health (EH) concepts and a conceptual framework for assessing health of the Bay of Fundy are presented. The framework includes:Concepts--What is health? What is EH and marine ecosystem health (MEH)? How does EH relate to other closely related concepts and principles i.e. environmental quality (especially marine or MEQ), ecosystem integrity, and ecosystem sustainability?Importance--Why is EH important, and what are the linkages to people i.e. human health?Approaches and techniques--How do we monitor and measure EH, and in that context, ecosystem or ecological change? i.e. What are the monitoring approaches and tools? What is an appropriate set of EH indicators and indices for the Bay of Fundy and Gulf of Maine? At the present time, can we make unequivocal statements about the status and trends in EH measures of the Bay of Fundy? Do we have adequate guidelines, objectives and standards for assessing environmental quality and EH?Connecting with management needs--Do we have adequate mechanisms in place to address MEH, marine environmental quality (MEQ), and environmental sustainability in the Bay of Fundy? What is the role of periodic marine assessments (state of the marine environment reports) in this activity? What kinds of new directions and new ecosystem science should be given priority? What kinds of other new activities should be pursued?For the Bay of Fundy Coastal Forum at the recent 5th BOFEP Bay of Fundy Science Workshop (May 2002), five core questions flowing from the health framework served to initiate and focus the discussions:Current state--What is the present health or condition of the Bay of Fundy?Changes--Are conditions improving or deteriorating?Indicators--What kinds of indicators do we consider most useful in trying to answer these questions?Existing resources--Are there adequate resources (e.g. institutional, financial, scientific, regulatory) to protect or restore the health of the Bay?Needs--What kinds of new information and approaches do we need to protect the health of the Bay?The background information and ideas of this paper were intended to assist discussion at the Fundy workshop, and to help identify the next steps, both individual and collective, for assessing the health of the Bay of Fundy.     

A preliminary analysis of fishery resource exhaustion in the context of biodiversity decline

Marine biodiversity in almost all oceans is being threatened at the genetic, species, and ecosystem levels. The marine ecosystem is being degraded and the extinction rate of marine organisms has accelerated. In this paper, the potential causes of fishery resource exhaustion in the East China Sea are analyzed, including the change in the stoichiometric composition of seawater with regard to the concentrations of N and P, toxic effects of marine pollution, marine habitat destruction, increased seawater temperatures caused by climate warming, ocean acidification, pressure from overfishing, and the spread of marine pathogenic bacteria. It is believed that the factors mentioned above have significant impact on the exhaustion of fishery resources in the East China Sea. However, considering the cumulative, synergistic, and superimposed effects as well as the amplification effects resulting from their interactions, the actual risk of ecological extinction of marine organisms might be even more severe than that previously estimated. Hence, ecosystem management and research focused on a single risk factor or influencing factor is not enough to prevent marine ecosystem degradation and fishery resource exhaustion. A comprehensive, systematic, effective, and ecosystem-based management policy is imperative for healthy and sustainable fishery development in the East China Sea.     

Microplastics in the marine environment

This review discusses the mechanisms of generation and potential impacts of microplastics in the ocean environment. Weathering degradation of plastics on the beaches results in their surface embrittlement and microcracking, yielding microparticles that are carried into water by wind or wave action. Unlike inorganic fines present in sea water, microplastics concentrate persistent organic pollutants (POPs) by partition. The relevant distribution coefficients for common POPs are several orders of magnitude in favour of the plastic medium. Consequently, the microparticles laden with high levels of POPs can be ingested by marine biota. Bioavailability and the efficiency of transfer of the ingested POPs across trophic levels are not known and the potential damage posed by these to the marine ecosystem has yet to be quantified and modelled. Given the increasing levels of plastic pollution of the oceans it is important to better understand the impact of microplastics in the ocean food web.     

Advances in research of the mid-deep South China Sea circulation

The South China Sea(SCS) is a large marginal sea connecting the Indian and Pacific oceans.Under the factors of monsoons,strait transport,and varied bathymetry,the SCS presents a three-layer structure and strong diapycnal mixing which is far greater than that in the open ocean.Theoretical analysis and observations reveal that internal tides,internal solitary waves,and strong winds are the sources of the strong mixing in the northern SCS.A major consequence of the strong mixing is an active mid-deep circulation system.This system promotes exchange of water between the SCS and adjacent oceans,and also regulates the upper layer of wind-driven circulation,making the 3 dimensional SCS circulation clearly different from that in other tropical and subtropical marginal seas.The mass transport capacity of the mid-deep circulation has a substantial impact on marine sedimentation,the biogeochemical cycle,and other processes in the SCS.This paper summarizes the recent advances in middeep sea circulation dynamics of the SCS,and discusses the opportunities and challenges in this area.     

Organotin contamination in seafood and its implication for human health risk in Hong Kong

Organotins (OTs) have caused widespread adverse effects on marine organisms, while they can also induce health problems to humans via consumption of contaminated seafood. This study aimed to quantify the tissue concentrations of OTs in 11 seafood species in Hong Kong, and assess the human health risk for consuming these species. The tongue sole Paraplagusia blochii had the highest concentration of total OTs. Triphenyltin (TPT) accounted for 56–97% of total OTs. The highest hazard quotient (HQ) for TPT was 1.41 in P. blochii, while the HQs for butyltins were much less than 1. The results indicated that it is likely to have certain health risks for consuming P. blochii due to its high TPT contamination. Therefore, TPT should be a priority pollutant of concern. Appropriate management actions should be taken to control its use and release in the region in order to safeguard the marine ecosystem and human health.     

Coastal coal pollution increases Cd concentrations in the predatory gastropod Hexaplex trunculus and is detrimental to its health

Parameters of environmental health, including paracellular permeability of external epithelia, functional state of lysosomes and the level of metallothioneins (MTs), were examined using fluorescent markers and vital microfluorometry in different tissues of the marine gastropod, Hexaplex trunculus, from a coal-polluted and coal-free site. Vital microfluorometrical examinations exhibited enhanced paracellular permeability of external epithelia to the anionic marker, fluorescein (FLU), lower lysosomal accumulation of neutral red (NR) as well as higher levels of MTs, when compared with epithelia of gastropods from the coal-free site. Those differences were particularly marked in the foot epithelium, which is in direct contact with the substrate. In addition, cadmium was measured by ICP-AES in the hepatopancreas of gastropods sampled from the coal-polluted site and two coal-free sites. Significantly higher levels of Cd were found in gastropod hepatopancreas from the coal-polluted site. In addition, two months feeding experiments conducted in aquaria containing: (a) coal pieces covered by barnacles; (b) natural rocks covered by barnacles; and (c) natural rocks with barnacles + bare coal pieces, demonstrated significant increase of Cd concentration in the hepatopancreas of the gastropods exposed to coal. We suggest that coal in the marine environment has detrimental effects on marine gastropods, both directly through contact with the organisms and indirectly through the food web.     

Biomarkers in environmental and human health risk assessment

Marine pollution is a major threat to human and environmental health. Given the complexity of function of marine and coastal ecosystems, it is unlikely that a balanced view of the nature and extent of risk will easily be achieved if human and environmental risk assessments continue to be conducted in isolation. Here, the integration of assessment protocols is advocated as a holistic means of improving risk management. Biomarkers can provide the common conceptual framework and measurable endpoints necessary for successful integration. Examples are given of the ways in which suites of biomarkers encompassing molecular change, cellular pathology and physiological impairment can be developed and adapted for human and ecological scenarios. By placing a greater emphasis on the health status of impacted biota, it is more likely that risk assessment will develop the efficiency, reliability and predictive power to adapt to the unforeseen environmental threats that are an inevitable consequence of human development and global change.     

Changes in the marine pollution management system in response to the Amorgos oil spill in Taiwan

The Marine Pollution Control Act (MPCA) of Taiwan was promulgated on November 1, 2000, with the specific aim of controlling marine pollution, safeguarding public health, and promoting the sustainable use of marine resources. In addition to land-based pollution, oil spills are one of the most significant threats to the local marine environment largely on account of the some 30,000 tankers which pass through Taiwan’s coastal waters each year. In January 2001, two months after the enactment of this newly-introduced law, a Greek merchant vessel, the Amorgos ran aground in the vicinity of a national park on the southern tip of Taiwan, causing a serious oil spill and leading to considerable changes with regard to the marine pollution management system. The incident brought to the forefront many serious problems, such as a lack of experience, expertise as well as equipment required to respond to such disasters, as well as the ambiguous, unclear jurisdiction among related agencies. Thus, this paper reviews the incident of the Amorgos spill, identifies the major issues and lessons learned, and proposes several recommendations in an effort for Taiwan to further improve its marine pollution management system.