Experience with the ULISS-30 inertial survey system for local geodetic and cadastral network control

The capability of the recently developed SAGEM ULISS-30 inertial survey system for performing local surveys at high accuracies have been tested in a field campaign carried out November 1989 on the island of Fyn, Denmark, in cooperation with the Swedish National Land Survey. In the test a number of lines between existing national geodetic control points were surveyed, along with points in the less reliably determined cadastral network, forming an irregular network pattern of 10–15 km extent. The survey involved frequent offset measurements (up to 50–100 m) with an ISS-integrated total station. The profile geometries were not particularly suited for inertial surveys, with narrow and rather winding roads, necessitating frequent vehicle turns. In addition to the pure inertial surveys a kinematic GPS/inertial test was also carried out, using a pair of Ashtech L-XII receivers. The inertial survey results, analyzed with a smoothing algoritm utilizing common points on forward/backward runs, indicate that 5-cm accuracies are possible on reasonably straight profiles of 5 km length, corresponding to a 10 ppm best-case accuracy for double-run traverses. On longer, more winding traverses error levels of 10–20 cm are typical. To handle the inertial data optimally, proper network adjustments are required. A discussion of suitable adjustment models of both conventional and collocation type is included in the paper.     

Analysis of the EUREF-89 GPS data from the SLR/VLBI sites

In May 1989, the IAG Subcommission for the European Reference Frame organized a GPS measurement campaign, called EUREF-89, to establish a common European Reference Frame. During a 2-week period various types of GPS receivers were deployed at about 100 different locations in Europe, which included many national geodetic first order points and most of the well-known SLR and VLBI sites. In this study, the measurements from those SLR and VLBI sites, and three additional points in The Netherlands, have been analyzed adopting a fiducial network approach. In the first place, the study provided valuable experience in the use of the GIPSY software for the analysis of GPS data from large networks equipped with a mixture of receiver types. Furthermore, this analysis represents an independent check of the SLR/VLBI network, used as the reference frame for the official EUREF solution. Daily solutions of baselines up to 2500 km in length have been obtained with a repeatability of 0.5–2.0 parts in 10⁸, while the agreement with SLR results is at about the same level. The accuracy of the estimated coordinates is at a level of about 4.0 cm in the horizontal and 6.0 cm in the vertical direction. Of particular interest are the results for some baselines in Greece, which have also been measured by mobile SLR in the framework of the WEGENER/MEDLAS project. The GPS results seem to confirm the trends in the baseline length changes emerging from those SLR studies.     

基于单个GPS/BDS信标台增强的实时精密单点定位

随着IGS实时服务的推广,实时轨道、钟差产品可用于实时PPP;然而,在一些通讯条件差的地方,如偏远山区和广袤的海洋,差分信号的播发与接收仍然是实时PPP的障碍。文中提出一种基于单个GPS/BDS信标台的实时PPP定位方法:基站采用广播星历和无电离层伪距、相位观测值,实时估计耦合轨道、钟误差;单向通讯的方式播发给用户端,减小通讯量,提高用户端的定位性能。经过分别距参考站约200km和300km的流动站进行验证,通过约10~12min收敛,GPS/BDS组合可得到水平优于20cm的定位精度。本案验证了采用广播星历进行实时PPP的可行性,为海洋和偏远地区提供一种高精度定位方法。     

Initial results of precise orbit and clock determination for COMPASS navigation satellite system

The development of the COMPASS satellite system is introduced, and the regional tracking network and data availability are described. The precise orbit determination strategy of COMPASS satellites is presented. Data of June 2012 are processed. The obtained orbits are evaluated by analysis of post-fit residuals, orbit overlap comparison and SLR (satellite laser ranging) validation. The RMS (root mean square) values of post-fit residuals for one month’s data are smaller than 2.0 cm for ionosphere-free phase measurements and 2.6 m for ionosphere-free code observations. The 48-h orbit overlap comparison shows that the RMS values of differences in the radial component are much smaller than 10 cm and those of the cross-track component are smaller than 20 cm. The SLR validation shows that the overall RMS of observed minus computed residuals is 68.5 cm for G01 and 10.8 cm for I03. The static and kinematic PPP solutions are produced to further evaluate the accuracy of COMPASS orbit and clock products. The static daily COMPASS PPP solutions achieve an accuracy of better than 1 cm in horizontal and 3 cm in vertical. The accuracy of the COMPASS kinematic PPP solutions is within 1–2 cm in the horizontal and 4–7 cm in the vertical. In addition, we find that the COMPASS kinematic solutions are generally better than the GPS ones for the selected location. Furthermore, the COMPASS/GPS combinations significantly improve the accuracy of GPS only PPP solutions. The RMS values are basically smaller than 1 cm in the horizontal components and 3–4 cm in the vertical component.     

A consistency test of airborne GPS using multiple monitor stations

In October 1990, several airborne GPS tests were conducted in the Ottawa region by the Canada Centre for Surveying (CCS) and the Canada Centre for Remote Sensing (CCRS). Ashtech XII receivers were located at up to three monitor stations with baseline lengths to the aircraft ranging from 1–200 km. Approximately two hours of airborne data, collected at a 2 Hz rate, were available for each of the three test days. Post-processing of the differential data was done using the University of Calgary's SEMIKIN package which utilizes a Kalman filter algorithm to estimate both the remote receiver's position and velocity. Comparisons were made between the aircraft position and velocity determined from each of the monitor stations to assess the consistency of differential GPS when different reference stations are used. Results show that the degree of consistency is dependent upon the distance to the monitor stations. Agreement at the decimetre-level is achieved in position when the baseline lengths are within 100 km. Agreement in velocity is usually better than 1 cm s^–1 (RMS).     

GPS network monitors the Arabia-Eurasia collision deformation in Iran

The rate of crustal deformation in Iran due to the Arabia–Eurasia collision is estimated. The results are based on new global positioning system (GPS) data. In order to address the problem of the distribution of the deformation in Iran, Iranian and French research organizations have carried out the first large-scale GPS survey of Iran. A GPS network of 28 sites (25 in Iran, two in Oman and one in Uzbekistan) has been installed and surveyed twice, in September 1999 and October 2001. Each site has been surveyed for a minimum observation of 4 days. GPS data processing has been done using the GAMIT-GLOBK software package. The solution displays horizontal repeatabilities of about 1.2 mm in 1999 and 2001. The resulting velocities allow us to constrain the kinematics of the Iranian tectonic blocks. These velocities are given in ITRF2000 and also relative to Eurasia. This last kinematic model demonstrates that (1) the north–south shortening from Arabia to Eurasia is 2–2.5 cm/year, less than previously estimated, and (2) the transition from subduction (Makran) to collision (Zagros) is very sharp and governs the different styles of deformation observed in Iran. In the eastern part of Iran, most of the shortening is accommodated in the Gulf of Oman, while in the western part the shortening is more distributed from south to north. The large faults surrounding the Lut block accommodate most of the subduction–collision transition.     

On the reliability of the VCV Matrix: A case study based on GAMIT and Bernese GPS Software

Commonly, the variance-covariance (VCV) matrix derived from GPS processing software underestimates the magnitude of the error, mainly due to the fact that physical correlations are normally neglected. The GAMIT and Bernese software packages serve the scientific community as important tools for GPS measurement processing and analyzing, especially in precise applications. Therefore, the reliability of the VCV matrices derived by the GAMIT and Bernese packages is of great importance. Formal accuracies derived from both software need to be scaled by applying a scaling factor (SF) that multiplies the software-derived formal errors. However, to the best of our knowledge, no standard approach approved by the GPS community exists. In this report, an analysis is carried out in order to test the reliability and the validity of the VCV matrices in both software, and to provide SFs needed to calculate the realistic accuracies reflecting the actual error levels. The method applied in this study allows deriving SFs for formal accuracies obtained from GAMIT and Bernese. The results attained from the time series of eight days for eight baselines (lengths of 20–415 km) indicate that the overall SF for GAMIT is more than 10 times smaller than for Bernese (1.9 and 23.0, respectively). Although no distance-dependent SF was detected in either case, the session-duration dependence was detected for the Bernese software, while no clear session-duration dependence was observed for the GAMIT. Furthermore, no receiver/antenna dependence could be deduced from the results of this analysis.     

First Results for the GPS Survey of South Africa Tide Gauges

Tide gauge measurements are used for a variety of scientific purposes, not least of which are the definition of vertical data and the detection of long-term variations in mean sea level. GPS measurements at tide gauge sites provide a means of separating local verticl motions from sea level rise, and a means of unifying vertical data in a single reference system. This paper describes a GPS survey to determine the positions and heights of reference stations at South African tide gauge sites. The data were processed in baseline mode using a commercial software package. The heights of the tide gauge stations relative to the fixed ITRF reference station HRAO were determined at a precision of around 3 cm – better than 0.1 ppm. Analysis of the error sources showes that use of the precise ephemeris contributed to a substantial improvement in accuracy, as did the use of ionosphere-free fixed integer baseline solutions. Variations in the antenna phase centers also contributed significant changes in height. ? 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Measuring geocentric radial coordinates with a non-fiducial GPS network

In this paper we address the problem of estimating the short term precision of the geocentric radial coordinate of a GPS receiver placed on the Earth crust using a non-fiducial approach. The network used in our analysis contains 35 receivers distributed globally. We have analyzed the data with two different strategies: global and regional. In the global strategy the results obtained, which are compatible with those of Heflin et al. (1992) and Blewitt et al. (1992), provide a weighted root mean square of the residuals (wrms) one order of magnitude larger than the formal errors of the individual estimates. Our regional strategy is based on the assumption that errors in the orbit determination induce errors in the receiver positions, correlated up to large scales. This approach allows us to obtain a significant agreement between the wrms and the formal errors.     

Response of GPS occultation signals to atmospheric gravity waves and retrieval of gravity wave parameters

We show that the amplitude of the Global Positioning System (GPS) signals in the radio occultation (RO) experiments is an indicator of the activity of the gravity waves (GW) in the atmosphere. The amplitude of the GPS RO signals is more sensitive to the atmospheric wave structures than is the phase. Early investigations used only the phase of the GPS occultation signals for statistical investigation of the GW activity in the height interval 10–40 km on a global scale. In this study, we use the polarization equations and Hilbert transform to find the 1-D GW radio image in the atmosphere by analyzing the amplitude of the RO signal. The radio image, also called the GW portrait, consists of the phase and amplitude of the GW as functions of height. We demonstrate the potential of this method using the amplitude data from GPS/Meteorology (GPS/MET) and satellite mission Challenge Mini-satellite Payload (CHAMP) RO events. The GW activity is nonuniformly distributed with the main contribution associated with the tropopause and the secondary maximums related to the GW breaking regions. Using our method we find the vertical profiles of the horizontal wind perturbations and its vertical gradient associated with the GW influence. The estimated values of the horizontal wind perturbations are in fairly good agreement with radiosonde data. The horizontal wind perturbations v(h) are ±1 to ±5 m s with vertical gradients dv/dh ±0.5 to ±15 m s km at height 10–40 km. The height dependence of the GW vertical wavelength was inferred through the differentiation of the GW phase. Analysis of this dependence using the dispersion relationship for the GW gives the estimation of the projection of the horizontal background wind velocity on the direction of the GW propagation. For the event considered, the magnitude of this projection changes between 1.5 and 10 m s at heights of 10–40 km. We conclude that the amplitude of the GPS occultation signals contain important information about the wave processes in the atmosphere on a global scale.     

EVA: GPS-based extended velocity and acceleration determination

In this work, a new GPS carrier phase-based velocity and acceleration determination method is presented that extends the effective range of previous techniques. The method is named ‘EVA’, and may find applications in fields such as airborne gravimetry when rough terrain or water bodies make difficult or impractical to set up nearby GPS reference receivers. The EVA method is similar to methods such as Kennedy (Precise acceleration determination from carrier phase measurements. In: Proceedings of the 15th international technical meeting of the satellite division of the Institute of Navigation. ION GPS 2002, Portland pp 962–972, 2002b) since it uses L1 carrier phase observables for velocity and acceleration determination. However, it introduces a wide network of stations and it is independent of precise clock information because it estimates satellite clock drifts and drift rates ‘on-the-fly’, requiring only orbit data of sufficient quality. Moreover, with EVA the solution rate is only limited by data rate, and not by the available precise satellite clocks data rate. The results obtained are more robust for long baselines than the results obtained with the reference Kennedy method. An advantage of being independent of precise clock information is that, beside IGS Final products, also the Rapid, Ultra-Rapid (observed) and Ultra-Rapid (predicted) products may be used. Moreover, the EVA technique may also use the undifferenced ionosphere-free carrier phase combination (LC), overcoming baseline limitations in cases where ionosphere gradients may be an issue and very low biases are required. During the development of this work, some problems were found in the velocity estimation process of the Kennedy method. The sources of the problems were identified, and an improved version of the Kennedy method was used for this research work. An experiment was performed using a light aircraft flying over the Pyrenees, showing that both EVA and the improved Kennedy methods are able to cope with the dynamics of mountainous flight. A RTK-derived solution was also generated, and when comparing the three methods to a known zero-velocity reference the results yielded similar performance. The EVA and the improved-Kennedy methods outperformed the RTK solutions, and the EVA method provided the best results in this experiment. Finally, both the improved version of the Kennedy method and the EVA method were applied to a network in equatorial South America with baselines of more than 1,770 km, and during local noon. Under this tough scenario, the EVA method showed a clear advantage for all components of velocity and acceleration, yielding better and more robust results.     

An approach for instantaneous ambiguity resolution for medium- to long-range multiple reference station networks

Integer ambiguity resolution (AR) is a prerequisite for all high-precision (centimetre level) GPS applications that utilise multiple reference station (MRS) networks. However, due to the presence of distance-dependent GPS errors, notably atmospheric refraction, AR across the network is difficult on an epoch-by-epoch basis, especially for medium- to long-range (typically 30–130 km as used here) MRS networks. This paper presents an approach for medium- to long-range instantaneous AR for MRS networks, based on an ionosphere-weighted observation model and network geometry constraints, along with a multiple ambiguity validation test procedure. The performance of the proposed method was demonstrated through two case-study examples from Australia and Norway. Our test results show that the instantaneous AR success rate varied from 93% (131 km baseline) to 98% (35 km baseline). It is also shown that the adopted high-precision prediction models for the double-difference (DD) ionospheric delay and residual tropospheric zenith delay (RTZD) are of benefit to the high success rate of the network AR. Due to its epoch-by-epoch nature, the proposed approach is insensitive to cycle-slips, rising or setting satellites, or loss-of-lock.     

Ionospheric calibration of single frequency VLBI and GPS observations using dual GPS data

Summary The ionospheric effect is one of the main sources of error in Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) and Global Positioning System (GPS) high precision geodesy. Although the use of two frequencies allows the estimation of this effect, in some cases dual observations are not possible due to the available equipment or the type of observation. This paper presents the ionospheric calibration of single frequency VLBI and GPS observations based on the ionospheric electron content estimated from dual frequency GPS data. The ionospheric delays obtained with this procedure and the VLBI baseline length results have been compared with those obtained with dual frequency data. For the European geodetic VLBI baselines, both solutions agree at the 3–5 parts in 10^–9 level. The noise introduced by the GPS-based calibration is in the order of 3 cm for the VLBI observables and of 10 cm for the GPS observables.     

Evaluation of co-location ties relating the VLBI and GPS reference frames

We have compared the VLBI and GPS terrestrial reference frames, realized using 5 years of time-series observations of station positions and polar motion, with surveyed co-location tie vectors for 25 sites. The goal was to assess the overall quality of the ties and to determine whether a subset of co-location sites might be found with VLBI–GPS ties that are self-consistent within a few millimeters. Our procedure was designed to guard against internal distortion of the two space-geodetic networks and takes advantage of the reduction in tie information needed with the time-series combination method by using the very strong contribution due to co-location of the daily pole of rotation. The general quality of the available ties is somewhat discouraging in that most have residuals, compared to the space-geodetic frames, at the level of 1–2 cm. However, by a careful selection process, we have identified a subset of nine local VLBI–GPS ties that are consistent with each other and with space geodesy to better than 4 mm (RMS) in each component. While certainly promising, it is not possible to confidently assess the reliability of this particular subset without new information to verify the absolute accuracy of at least a few of the highest-quality ties. Particular care must be taken to demonstrate that possible systematic errors within the VLBI and GPS systems have been properly accounted for. A minimum of two (preferably three or four) ties must be measured with accuracies of 1 mm or better in each component, including any potential systematic effects. If this can be done, then the VLBI and GPS frames can be globally aligned to less than 1 mm in each Helmert component using our subset of nine ties. In any case, the X and Y rotations are better determined, to about 0.5 mm, due to the contribution of co-located polar motion.     

Baltic Sea Level project with GPS

In order to study the Baltic Sea Level change and to unify national height systems a two week GPS campaign was performed in the region in Autumn 1990. Parties from Denmark, Finland, Germany, Poland and Sweden carried out GPS measurements at 26 tide gauges along the Baltic sea and 8 VLBI and SLR fiducial stations with baseline lengths ranging from 230 km to 1600 km. The observations were processed in the network mode with the Bernese version 3.3 software using orbit improvement techniques. To get rid of the scale error introduced by the ionospheric refraction from single-frequency data, the local models of the ionosphere were estimated using L4 observations. The tropospheric zenith corrections were also considered. The preliminary results show average root mean square (RMS) errors of about ±3 cm in the horizontal position and ±7 cm in the vertical position relative to the Potsdam SLR station in ITRF89 system. After transformation of the GPS results to geoid heights using the levelled heights, an absolute comparison with gravimetric geoid heights using the least squares modification of Stokes' formula (LSMS), the modified Molodensky and the NKG Scandinavian geoid 1989 (NGK-89) models gives a standard deviation of the difference of ±7cm to ±9cm for the NKG-89 model and of ±9cm to ±30cm for the LSMS and the modified Molodensky model. The Swedish height system is found to be about 8-37cm higher than those of the other Baltic countries for NKG-89 model.     

根河地区冻融监测和降尺度算法的验证分析

高分辨率地表冻融监测对研究根河地区碳氮循环、水土流失和土壤冻融侵蚀非常重要。本文采用Kou等(2017)提出的被动微波亮温降尺度方法和1 km空间分辨率的温度数据,将0.25°空间分辨率的被动微波亮温降尺度至0.01°空间分辨率。利用通过模型模拟与实验数据发展得到的冻融判别式算法DFA_Zhao(Discriminant Function Algorithm)和改进的冻融判别式算法DFA_Kou(Improved Discriminant Function Algorithm),基于降尺度前后的被动微波亮温监测根河地区的地表冻融。以根河地区2013年7月—2015年12月的地下0—5 cm深度的实测土壤温度检验这两种冻融判识算法的分类精度。结果显示,降尺度前后两种冻融判识算法整体判对率差异在6.72%内;DFA_Zhao算法融化判对率的均值比DFA_Kou算法高10%,DFA_Kou算法冻结判对率均值比DFA_Zhao算法高1%。两种冻融判别式算法的冻结判对率均在90%以上,升轨期的融化判对率均在80%以上,但两算法降轨期的融化判对率较低,在40%—82%之间。同时,还进一步讨论并分析了两种冻融判别式算法和被动微波亮温降尺度方法可能存在的问题,指出了可能的改进方向。     

网络RTK参考站间模糊度动态解算的卡尔曼滤波算法研究

提出一种适用于参考站网络的站间模糊度解算方法,该方法使用CA码与相位的电离层无关组合解算宽巷模糊度,利用多路径效应的周期性削弱CA码多路径效应。在宽巷模糊度得到固定后,利用卡尔曼滤波对L1模糊度进行估计,并使用模糊度失相关搜索算法,动态地确定模糊度。这种方法已经应用在自主开发的网络RTK软件上,并以四川GPS综合服务网络SIGN(Sichuan Integrated GPS Network)作为试验网络,进行了试验和分析。     

The wavelet method as an alternative for reducing ionospheric effects from single-frequency GPS receivers

The ionospheric effect is one of the major errors in GPS data processing over long baselines. As a dispersive medium, it is possible to compute its influence on the GPS signal with the ionosphere-free linear combination of L1 and L2 observables, requiring dual-frequency receivers. In the case of single-frequency receivers, ionospheric effects are either neglected or reduced by using a model. In this paper, an alternative for single-frequency users is proposed. It involves multiresolution analysis (MRA) using a wavelet analysis of the double-difference observations to remove the short- and medium-scale ionosphere variations and disturbances, as well as some minor tropospheric effects. Experiments were carried out over three baseline lengths from 50 to 450 km, and the results provided by the proposed method were better than those from dual-frequency receivers. The horizontal root mean square was of about 0.28 m (1σ).     

Impact of GPS satellite and pseudolite geometry on structural deformation monitoring: analytical and empirical studies

Global positioning systems (GPS) have in recent years been increasingly used to monitor the deformations of large structures, particularly the deflections of long suspension bridges. When appropriately employed, and with the presence of a strong satellite geometry, GPS can supply timely and accurate structural deformation information. However, the three-dimensional (3-D) positioning accuracies in a local coordinate system are uneven. For instance, the vertical component of 3-D coordinates is less accurate than the horizontal component. In addition, GPS satellite availability tends to be a function of the latitude of the observation site and its surrounding obstructions. As a consequence, the accuracy of the north–south component is typically worse than that of the east–west component in mid-latitude areas (>45), and in some of the worst situations the horizontal positioning accuracy could even degrade to the same level as that of the vertical component. With such measurements it might not be possible to correctly interpret the real structural deformations. Furthermore, an insufficient number of satellites, caused by signal obstruction, could make it impossible to use GPS alone for kinematic positioning, even when integrated with other sensors such as triaxial accelerometers. With the aim of improving 3-D positioning accuracies for the monitoring of structural deflections, especially in vertical and northern directions, the optimal location selection of an array of ground-based pseudolites to augment GPS satellite geometry using an analytical simulation technique proposed by the authors is considered. Achievable 3-D positioning accuracies are estimated by simulating a real bridge deformation scenario using augmented transmitter geometry and compared with actual positioning accuracies calculated from the measurements gathered from a bridge trial. The results show that with an augmented satellite geometry and multipath mitigation it is possible to achieve uniform 3-D positioning accuracies of a few millimetres.     

Assessment of long-range kinematic GPS positioning errors by comparison with airborne laser altimetry and satellite altimetry

Long-range airborne laser altimetry and laser scanning (LIDAR) or airborne gravity surveys in, for example, polar or oceanic areas require airborne kinematic GPS baselines of many hundreds of kilometers in length. In such instances, with the complications of ionospheric biases, it can be a real challenge for traditional differential kinematic GPS software to obtain reasonable solutions. In this paper, we will describe attempts to validate an implementation of the precise point positioning (PPP) technique on an aircraft without the use of a local GPS reference station. We will compare PPP solutions with other conventional GPS solutions, as well as with independent data by comparison of airborne laser data with “ground truth” heights. The comparisons involve two flights: A July 5, 2003, airborne laser flight line across the North Atlantic from Iceland to Scotland, and a May 24, 2004, flight in an area of the Arctic Ocean north of Greenland, near-coincident in time and space with the ICESat satellite laser altimeter. Both of these flights were more than 800 km long. Comparisons between different GPS methods and four different software packages do not suggest a clear preference for any one, with the heights generally showing decimeter-level agreement. For the comparison with the independent ICESat- and LIDAR-derived “ground truth” of ocean or sea-ice heights, the statistics of comparison show a typical fit of around 10 cm RMS in the North Atlantic, and 30 cm in the sea-ice region north of Greenland. Part of the latter 30 cm error is likely due to errors in the airborne LIDAR measurement and calibration, as well as errors in the “ground truth” ocean surfaces due to drifting sea-ice. Nevertheless, the potential of the PPP method for generating 10 cm level kinematic height positioning over long baselines is illustrated.