Evaluation of soil liquefaction in the Chi-Chi, Taiwan earthquake using CPT

During the 1999 Chi-Chi, Taiwan earthquake, many sand boiling phenomena were observed in central Taiwan, which caused severe ground settlement and structure damages. According to the installed accelerograms, the peak ground surface horizontal accelerations in the liquefaction-affected areas range from 774.42 to 121.3 gal. The writers carried out an extensive investigation of soil liquefaction in this earthquake. In this paper, we present results of the CPT exploration and post-earthquake liquefaction analysis. Two hundred and seventy five (275) cone penetration test data were collected from the liquefaction-affected areas, and 46 liquefaction case histories and 88 non-liquefaction case histories were derived that can be used to evaluate the accuracy of existing liquefaction evaluation models. In addition, the strength of the liquefied soils after earthquake and the implication of its liquefaction potential in the future event are discussed.     

Research on the middle-of-receiver-spread assumption of the MASW method

The multichannel analysis of surface wave (MASW) method has been effectively used to determine near-surface shear- (S-) wave velocity. Estimating the S-wave velocity profile from Rayleigh-wave measurements is straightforward. A three-step process is required to obtain S-wave velocity profiles: acquisition of a multiple number of multichannel records along a linear survey line by use of the roll-along mode, extraction of dispersion curves of Rayleigh waves, and inversion of dispersion curves for an S-wave velocity profile for each shot gather. A pseudo-2D S-wave velocity section can be generated by aligning 1D S-wave velocity models. In this process, it is very important to understand where the inverted 1D S-wave velocity profile should be located: the midpoint of each spread (a middle-of-receiver-spread assumption) or somewhere between the source and the last receiver. In other words, the extracted dispersion curve is determined by the geophysical structure within the geophone spread or strongly affected by the source geophysical structure. In this paper, dispersion curves of synthetic datasets and a real-world example are calculated by fixing the receiver spread and changing the source location. Results demonstrate that the dispersion curves are mainly determined by structures within a receiver spread.     

Multi-station analysis of surface wave dispersion

Methods based on multi-station recordings are presented for constructing the experimental dispersion curve of Rayleigh waves. Multi-station recording permits a single survey of a broad depth range, high levels of redundancy with a single field configuration, and the ability to adjust the offset, effectively reducing near field and far field effects. A method based on the linear regression of phase angles measured at multiple stations is introduced for determining data quality and filtering criteria. This method becomes a powerful tool for on site quality control in real time. The effects of multiple modes and survey line parameters, such as near offset, receiver spacing, and offset range, are investigated. Parametric studies result in general guidelines for the field data acquisition. A case study demonstrates how to easily deploy commonplace seismic refraction equipment to simultaneously record data for P-wave tomographic interpretation and multi-station analysis of surface wave.     

多道面波分析方法在测量土壤压实度方面的应用研究

在农业和工程领域，土壤压实度是一个重要问题。虽然采用钻孔方法可以探测土壤压实度情况，但费用较高。本文采用多道面波分析方(MASW)研究了土壤压实度的问题，并将试验结果同电阻率测井数据、岩心数据、测井速度做了对比，结果表明该方法可以用于土壤压实度的探测，而且速度快、费用低、结果准确可信。     

Characterization of liquefaction resistance in gravelly soil: large hammer penetration test and shear wave velocity approach

Gravelly soil is generally recognized to have no liquefaction potential. However, liquefaction cases were reported in central Taiwan in the 1999 Chi-Chi Taiwan earthquake and in the 1988 Armenia earthquake. Thus, further studies on the liquefaction potential of gravelly soil are warranted. Because large particles can impede the penetration of both standard penetration test and cone penetration test, shear wave velocity-based correlations and large hammer penetration tests (LPT) are employed to evaluate the liquefaction resistance of gravelly soils. A liquefied gravelly deposit site during the Chi-Chi earthquake was selected for this research. In situ physical properties of soil deposits were collected from exploratory trenches. Instrumented LPT and shear wave velocity (V_s) measurements were performed to evaluate the liquefaction resistance. In addition, large-scale cyclic triaxial tests on remolded gravelly soil samples (15 cm in diameter, 30 cm in height) were conducted to verify and improve LPT-based and V_s-based correlations. The results show that the LPT and shear wave velocity methods are reasonably suitable for liquefaction assessment of gravelly soils.     

Experimental and conceptual evidence about the limitations of shear wave velocity to predict liquefaction

Based on the liquefaction performance of sites with seismic activity, the normalized shear wave velocity, V_s1, has been proposed as a field parameter for liquefaction prediction. Because shear wave velocity, V_s, can be measured in the field with less effort and difficulty than other field tests, its use by practitioners is highly attractive. However, considering that its measurement is associated with small strain levels, of the order of 10⁻⁴–10⁻³%, V_s reflects the elastic stiffness of a granular material, hence, it is mainly affected by soil type, confining pressure and soil density, but it is insensitive to factors such as overconsolidation and pre-shaking, which have a strong influence on the liquefaction resistance. Therefore, without taking account of the important factors mentioned above, the correlation between shear wave velocity and liquefaction resistance is weak.In this paper, laboratory test results are presented in order to demonstrate the significant way in which OCR (overconsolidation ratio) affects both shear wave velocity and liquefaction resistance. While V_s is insensitive to OCR, the liquefaction resistance increases significantly with OCR. In addition, the experimental results also confirm that V_s correlates linearly with void ratio, regardless of the maximum and minimum void ratios, which means that V_s is unable to give information about the relative density. Therefore, if shear wave velocity is used to predict liquefaction potential, it is recommended that the limitations presented in this paper be taken into account.     

区域土壤地震液化预测简化方法

利用可大范围获取的空间参数给出区域土壤液化的评估方法,可预估震前各地区土壤液化可能性,可快速评估震后震区土壤液化情况,对预防减轻地震灾害以及地震快速响应救援都具有重要意义的.本文以我国1976唐山大地震液化调查资料为背景,提出了区域土壤液化预测的四参数简化评估方法,并用2011年新西兰基督城地震进行了检验.选取场地平均剪切波速V_s30、复合地形指数CTI、场地到河流的距离DR以及地面峰值加速度PGA,分别代表土壤密实程度、饱水状态、地质年代和遭遇的地震作用大小,并基于我国唐山地震液化区域调查资料生成的样本,运用经典二元Logistic回归方法,建立了区域土壤液化预测模型和评估公式,回归检验结果良好,整体回判成功率为77%,非液化和液化区域成功率分别为73%和78%.将公式应用于评估2011年新西兰基督城地震液化情况,区域液化和非液化成功率分别为82%和88%,总体成功率为84%.以上结果表明本文模型可靠,方法正确,可用于区域土壤液化震前预估以及土壤液化震后快速评估.

     

基于微动方法研究五大连池火山区尾山火山锥浅层剪切波速度结构

为了研究五大连池火山区尾山火山锥浅层三维波速结构特征,在尾山火山锥附近区域布设了无线地震检波器密集台阵,记录连续地震背景噪声波形数据.基于微动方法（拓展空间自相关方法）提取了台站间2~5 Hz频率范围的Rayleigh面波相速度频散曲线.利用面波层析成像方法反演获得2~5 Hz Rayleigh面波二维相速度图像,基于每一个网格节点的频散曲线,进一步反演获得了尾山火山锥附近区域地表至700 m深度的三维剪切波速度结构.成像结果显示：在0~150 m较浅深度,靠近尾山火山锥区域显示为相对高速异常,远离火山锥区域则显示为相对低速异常.而至150~700 m较深深度,波速异常特征与浅部相反,靠近尾山火山锥的区域显示为相对低速异常,远离火山锥的区域显示为相对高速异常.在远离尾山火山锥区域,浅层的相对低速异常可能与松散沉积层有关,深部的高速异常则反映了结晶变质岩的影响.在靠近尾山火山锥区域,浅部的相对高速异常应该反映了出露地表的玄武岩,而深部的相对低速异常则可能反映了火山通道周围广泛发育的破碎裂隙结构及其火山喷发后孔隙流体填充的影响.     

Comparing shear-wave velocity profiles inverted from multichannel surface wave with borehole measurements

Recent field tests illustrate the accuracy and consistency of calculating near-surface shear (S)-wave velocities using multichannel analysis of surface waves (MASW). S-wave velocity profiles (S-wave velocity vs. depth) derived from MASW compared favorably to direct borehole measurements at sites in Kansas, British Columbia, and Wyoming. Effects of changing the total number of recording channels, sampling interval, source offset, and receiver spacing on the inverted S-wave velocity were studied at a test site in Lawrence, Kansas. On the average, the difference between MASW calculated V_s and borehole measured V_s in eight wells along the Fraser River in Vancouver, Canada was less than 15%. One of the eight wells was a blind test well with the calculated overall difference between MASW and borehole measurements less than 9%. No systematic differences were observed in derived V_s values from any of the eight test sites. Surface wave analysis performed on surface data from Wyoming provided S-wave velocities in near-surface materials. Velocity profiles from MASW were confirmed by measurements based on suspension log analysis.     

Spatial variability of liquefaction potential in regional mapping using CPT and SPT data

Cone penetration test (CPT) and standard penetration test (SPT) are widely used for the site specific evaluation of liquefaction potential and are getting increased use in the regional mapping of liquefaction hazard. This paper compares CPT and SPT-based liquefaction potential characterizations of regional geologic units using the liquefaction potential index (LPI) across the East Bay of the San Francisco Bay, California, USA and examines the statistical and spatial variability of LPI across and within geologic units. Overall, CPT-based LPI characterizations result in higher hazard than those derived from the SPT. This bias may result from either mis-classifications of soil type in the CPT or a bias in the CPT simplified procedure for liquefaction potential. Regional mapping based on cumulative distribution of LPI values show different results depending on which dataset is used. For both SPT and CPT-based characterizations, the geologic units in the area have broad LPI distributions that overlap between units and are not distinct from the population as a whole. Regional liquefaction classifications should therefore give a distribution, rather than a single hazard rating that does not provide for variability within the area. The CPT-based LPI values have a higher degree of spatial correlation and a lower variance over a greater distance than those estimated from SPTs. As a result, geostatistical interpolation can provide a detailed map of LPI when densely sampled CPT data are available. The statistical distribution of LPI within specific geologic units and interpolated maps of LPI can be used to understand the spatial variability of liquefaction potential.     

Requirements for soil-specific correlation between shear wave velocity and liquefaction resistance of sands

The application of the simplified method for evaluating the liquefaction potential based on shear wave velocity measurements has increased substantially due to its advantages, especially for microzonation of liquefaction potential. In the simplified method, a curve is proposed to correlate the cyclic resistance ratio (CRR) with overburden stress-corrected shear wave velocity (V_s1). However, the uniqueness of this curve for all types of soils is questionable. The objective of this research is to study whether the correlation between CRR and V_s1 is unique or not. Besides, the necessity of developing the soil-specific correlations is also investigated. Based on laboratory test data, a new semi-empirical method is proposed to establish the soil-specific CRR–V_s1 correlation. To validate the proposed method, a number of undrained cyclic triaxial tests along with bender element tests were performed on two types of sands. Similar experimental data for six other types of sands reported in the literature was also compiled. Applying the proposed method, soil-specific CRR–V_s1 correlation curves were developed for these eight types of sands. It is shown that the correlation is not unique for different types of sands and the boundary curve proposed in the available simplified method can only be used as an initial estimation of liquefaction resistance. Finally, using the results of this study as well as previous ones, a chart is suggested to be used in engineering practice showing the conditions for which a detailed soil-specific CRR–V_s1 correlation study needs to be performed.     

Multichannel analysis of surface wave method with the autojuggie

The shear (S)-wave velocity of near-surface materials and its effect on seismic-wave propagation are of fundamental interest in many engineering, environmental, and groundwater studies. The multichannel analysis of surface wave (MASW) method provides a robust, efficient, and accurate tool to observe near-surface S-wave velocity. A recently developed device used to place large numbers of closely spaced geophones simultaneously and automatically (the ‘autojuggie’) is shown here to be applicable to the collection of MASW data. In order to demonstrate the use of the autojuggie in the MASW method, we compared high-frequency surface-wave data acquired from conventionally planted geophones (control line) to data collected in parallel with the automatically planted geophones attached to steel bars (test line). The results demonstrate that the autojuggie can be applied in the MASW method. Implementation of the autojuggie in very shallow MASW surveys could drastically reduce the time required and costs incurred in such surveys.     

Cyclic resistance and liquefaction behavior of silt and sandy silt soils

The liquefaction behavior and cyclic resistance ratio (CRR) of reconstituted samples of non-plastic silt and sandy silts with 50% and 75% silt content are examined using constant-volume cyclic and monotonic ring shear tests along with bender element shear wave velocity (V_s) measurements. Liquefaction occurred at excess pore water pressure ratios (r_u) between 0.6 and 0.7 associated with cumulative cyclic shear strains (γ) of 4% to 7%, after which cyclic liquefaction ensued with very large shear strains and excess pore water pressure ratio (r_u>0.8). The cyclic ring shear tests demonstrate that cyclic resistance ratio of silt and sandy silts decreases with increasing void ratio, or with decreasing silt content at a certain void ratio. The results also show good agreement with those from cyclic direct simple shear tests on silts and sandy silts. A unique correlation is developed for estimating CRR of silts and sandy silts (with more than 50% silt content) from stress-normalized shear wave velocity measurements (V_s1) with negligible effect of silt content. The results indicate that the existing CRR–V_s1 correlations would underestimate the liquefaction resistance of silts and sandy silt soils.     

Neural network model for liquefaction potential in soil deposits using Turkey and Taiwan earthquake data

Simplified methods have been practiced by researchers to assess nonlinear liquefaction potential of soil. Derived from several field and laboratory tests, various simplified procedures such as stress-based, strain-based, Chinese criteria, etc. have been developed by utilizing case studies and undisturbed soil specimens. In order to address the collective knowledge built up in conventional liquefaction engineering, an alternative general regression neural network model is proposed in this paper.To meet this objective, a total of 620 sets of data including 12 soil and seismic parameters are introduced into the model. The data includes the results of field tests from the two major earthquakes that took place in Turkey and Taiwan in 1999 and some of the desired input parameters are obtained from correlations existing in the literature.The proposed GRNN model was developed in four phases, mainly: identification phase, collection phase, implementation phase, and verification phase. An iterative procedure was followed to maximize the accuracy of the proposed model. The case records were divided randomly into testing, training, and validation datasets.Generating a model that takes into account of 12 soil and seismic parameters is not feasible by using simplified techniques; however, the proposed GRNN model effectively explored the complex relationship between the introduced soil and seismic input parameters and validated the liquefaction decision obtained by simplified methods. The proposed GRNN model predicted well the occurrence/nonoccurrence of soil liquefaction in these sites. The model provides a viable tool to geotechnical engineers in assessing seismic condition in sites susceptible to liquefaction.     

An improved method of evaluating liquefaction potential with the velocity of shear-waves

According to the results of cyclic triaxial tests, a linear correlation is presented between liquefaction resistance and elastic shear modulus, which shows the relation of G _max (kPa) with (σ_d/2)^1/2(kPa)^1/2. When applied to soils from different sites, the correlation can be normalized in reference to its minimum void ratio (e _min). Accordingly, an improved method is established to evaluate the liquefaction potential with shear-wave velocity. The critical shear-wave velocity of liquefaction is in linear relation with 1/4 power of depth and the maximum acceleration during earthquakes, which can be used to explain the phenomenon that the possibility of liquefaction decreases with the increment of the depth. Compared with previous methods this method turns out simple and effective, which is also verified by the results of cyclic triaxial tests. Foundation item: State Natural Science Foundation (59678020) and Natural Science Foundation of Zhejiang Province (RC9609).     

A practical reliability-based method for assessing soil liquefaction potential

The current simplified methods for assessing soil liquefaction potential use a deterministic safety factor in order to judge whether liquefaction will occur or not. However, these methods are unable to determine the liquefaction probability related to a safety factor. An answer to this problem can be found by reliability analysis. This paper presents a reliability analysis method based on the popular Seed'85 liquefaction analysis method. This reliability method uses the empirical acceleration attenuation law in the Taiwan area to derive the probability density distribution function (PDF) and the statistics for the earthquake-induced cyclic shear stress ratio (CSR). The PDF and the statistics for the cyclic resistance ratio (CRR) can be deduced from some probabilistic cyclic resistance curves. These curves are produced by the regression of the liquefaction and non-liquefaction data from the Chi-Chi earthquake and others around the world, using, with minor modifications, the logistic model proposed by Liao [J. Geotech. Eng. 114 (1988) 389]. The CSR and CRR statistics are used in conjunction with the first order and second moment method, to calculate the relation between the liquefaction probability, the safety factor and the reliability index. Based on the proposed method, the liquefaction probability related to a safety factor can be easily calculated. The influence of some of the soil parameters on the liquefaction probability can be quantitatively evaluated.     

砂土液化对设计反应谱和场地分类的影响

本文采用有效应力原理分析了液化土层对设计反应谱的影响，分析中考虑了砂层的厚度、埋深和输入地震动等因素。选择Ⅱ类场地，将其标准反应谱合成的三条地震加速度时程在考虑土层非液化下反演到基岩，再正演计算存在液化层时的地面运动时程和反应谱。分析结果表明，从特征周期的变化来看，液化土层使Ⅱ类场地易变为Ⅳ类场地，对地震影响系数的作用则不是很大，但频谱上0．8s是一个分界线，液化土层对分界线以下的高频分量有一定减震效果，对分界线以上的低频分量有显著的放大效应。     

Evaluation of liquefaction potential using neural-networks and CPT results

In this research, a reliable Cone Penetration Test data set was gathered with a wide range of parameters. This data was incorporated in a Neural-Networks computer software called STATISTICA Neural-Networks. The back propagation algorithm with a multilayer perceptron network is utilized to analyze the liquefaction occurrence in different sites. In this study, different sets of effective parameters for the neural-network analyses are selected such that to reduce the noise and to obtain more accurate results.Considering the relative importance of effective parameters in liquefaction assessment, it is indicated that σ₀, σ′₀ together play a more important role than what previously was assumed and hence the relative importance of the q_c and seismic parameters are decreased compared with the previous works. The results presented here have more accuracy than previous works while at the same time, the range of the parameters used in this study is much wider than what was previously used. This range of parameters makes the proposed method applicable for practical purposes.     

SASW及MASW方法在隐伏断层探测中的应用

针对地壳浅部介质横向变化大的特点,用瞬态瑞利波SASW与MASW方法对河北夏垫断裂进行了探测与数据处理分析.分别用时间域互相关法和频率域f-k分析法提取频散曲线,然后进行反演得到横波速度结构.实验结果表明瞬态瑞利波法在应用中便捷、灵活,对于探测地表介质中非均匀异常体及断裂向浅部的延伸情况具有独特的应用前景.     

Assessment of liquefaction potential based on peak ground motion parameters

Conventionally, evaluation of liquefaction potential of loose saturated cohesionless deposits as specified in Japanese design codes employs peak ground acceleration (PGA). However, recent large-scale earthquakes in Japan revealed that liquefaction at some sites did not occur even though large PGAs were recorded at or near these sites. As an alternative approach, an evaluation procedure based on peak ground motion parameters, i.e. incorporating both PGA and the peak ground velocity (PGV), is proposed. By performing parametric studies using one-dimensional seismic response analysis and formulating regression models, seismic-induced shear stresses within the deposit are expressed in terms of peak ground motion parameters at the surface, and these are used to calculate the factor of safety against liquefaction. Application to case histories in Japan indicates that the proposed two-parameter equation can adequately account for the occurrence and non-occurrence of liquefaction at various sites as compared to the conventional PGA-based approach. Moreover, analyses of several strong motion records at various sites show that liquefaction may occur when PGA≥150 gal and PGV≥20 kine, indicating that these values can serve as thresholds in assessing the possible occurrence of liquefaction.